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Sparkling Wine
Sparkling wine mainly differs from still non-effervescent wine by the presence of the bubbles rising through the liquid and aerosolizing aroma compounds.
History of Sparkling Wine
Sparkling wine’s development is also Champagne’s development. The story starts with the “Little Ice Age” which caused Northern Hemisphere temperatures to decrease from the late 1400s to the mid-19th century1. In turn, this caused issues with complete fermentations, and when the weather warmed in the spring, the already-casked wine would start refermenting, causing the accumulation of carbon dioxide (CO2) within the vessel. This effervescence was considered a wine fault at first. However in the 1660s, a few significant and unrelated events occurred:
In France:
In England:
By the end of the 17th century, Dom Pérignon was ordered to reverse his efforts and was tasked with developing new ways to increase bubbles, which included the usage of cork instead of rags or wooden pegs. |
According to the Oxford Companion of Wine by Jancis Robinson and Julia Harding, throughout the 18th century only a few thousand sparkling wine bottles were produced every year, and half of them would break because the fermentation science was still generally unknown. The current version of Champagne did not exist until the 19th century, aided by the following technological advancements Bottles were made thicker in 1735, as a result of the French copying the English. This was followed by moulding being introduced in 1882 to standardize capacity, then in 1918, glass blowing using compressed air was adopted by the industry.
Around 1820, Champagne makers started to add rock sugar to their cuvées, to kick-start secondary fermentation. Some years later, wine enthusiast and former Châlons-en-Champagne pharmacist Jean-Baptiste François invented a method to determine the total sugar content in the cuvée. By the late 19th century, scientists had worked out that the addition of 4 grams of sugar/liter raised pressure by 1 bar after fermentation. In the 1850s, Madame Veuve Clicquot and her employees developed the system of pupitres (wooden frames) to assist the remuage process (turning or shaking of bottled Champagne to move sediment toward the cork). The corking machine was developed, and the understanding of secondary fermentation by Jean-Baptiste François enabled winemakers to measure the precise quantity of sugar required to induce a second fermentation without an explosive force. It was not until 1892 that the traditional method arrived in Spain, and in 1924, Prosecco got its bubbles via the Charmat method, a process that traps bubbles in wine via carbonation in large steel tanks. |
Understanding Sparkling Wine Making |
Grape Cultivars
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There are a few great perspectives on sparkling wine making. The following is a combination of the three, with additional references and sources. These are:
Jackson, R. S. (2008). Wine science: principles and applications. Academic press. Zoecklein, B. W. (1998). A review of methode champenoise production. www.apps.fst.vt.edu/extension/enology/downloads/463-017.pdf Jeandet, Philippe. (2011). Sparkling Wine Production. www.researchgate.net/publication/278303662_Sparkling_Wine_Production |
Both white and red grapes may be used to produce sparkling wine; however, white grapes are favored for the attributes that also constitute ideal “ripeness”.
The ideal ripeness of sparkling wine grapes is:
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Grape Ripeness
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Crushing and Pressing
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Grapes in cool wine regions are sometimes picked underripe to avoid Botrytis cinerea, a fungus which causes foaming issues. Ripe grapes are ideal, however. In a study by Liu et al. (2018):4
Harvest can be done by machine or manually.
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Grapes may or may not be crushed, as pressing alone minimizes skin contact and phenolic extraction. Grape skin tannins and pigments accentuate gushing, the rapid and uncontrolled increase of gas volume that results in the expulsion of foam from a bottle of sparkling wine, because of changes in stability resulting from precipitation of pigment and tannin complexes.6 If grapes are crushed before pressing, unwanted solids may be removed prior to fermentation by bentonite-facilitated settling, centrifugation, or filtration. Additionally:
Type of Press
Styles of Pressing
Force of Pressing
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The Pressing Process
The juice that results from the pressing process is divided into the following fractions:7
Free-Run Juice/Autopressurage (Champagne)/ Mosto Flor (Cava):
The cuvée:
Première taille/First Taille:
Second Taille:
Not used in Champagne production and is vinified separately from the cuvée, or distilled (Jeandet, 2011).
After crushing, the juice is chilled and clarified by settling solids, bentonite-facilitated settling, centrifugation, or filtration prior to fermentation.
Free-Run Juice/Autopressurage (Champagne)/ Mosto Flor (Cava):
- Pressure: No pressure, just the weight of the grapes in the press.
The cuvée:
- Pressure: Light pressure.
- Juice Characteristics: Lowest pH, highest tartaric and malic acid content, rich in sugar.
Première taille/First Taille:
- Pressure: >100 kPa.
- Juice Characteristics: Rich in sugar, but has lower acidity and higher fruit aroma, mineral content (especially potassium salts), tannin content and pigment concentrations.
- Taille musts produce intensely aromatic wines – fruitier in youth than those made from the cuvée, but less age-worthy.
Second Taille:
Not used in Champagne production and is vinified separately from the cuvée, or distilled (Jeandet, 2011).
After crushing, the juice is chilled and clarified by settling solids, bentonite-facilitated settling, centrifugation, or filtration prior to fermentation.
- Dambrouck et al. (2007) found 10-50 g/hL of bentonite leads to a significant decrease in both total protein content and grape invertase content, which in turn decreases foam height and foam stability. If casein (10 and 20 g/hL) or bentonite combined with casein (both at 20 g/hL) was used, only a slight decrease in the total protein content and grape invertase concentration was found.8 It should be noted that bentonite may impact these proteins at any point during the winemaking process.
Primary Fermentation
Temperature:
Yeast: Typical white wine yeasts of Saccharomyces cerevisiae as the primary fermenter and Saccharomyces bayanus are also common. Ideal strains help to minimize the production of SO2, acetaldehyde, acetic acid and other undesired volatiles created by indigenous yeasts (Jackson, Wine Science). pH
Additives commonly used to adjust the fermentation based upon the maturity of the grapes and proportion of diseased fruit are, according to Jackson, in Wine Science: SO2, added to the juice as it comes from the press.
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Blending/AssemblageBase wines, which may differ in vineyard, vintage, and cultivar, are blended together to create a cuvée.
Why: Blending, created by a formula developed through sensory evaluation of the base wines, is often crucial, because a single year may not have adequate weather to ripen grapes to provide the ideal aroma characteristics, sugar level, or sufficient volume for production. This is more important in cold regions like Champagne, where weather is highly variable. Vintage vs Non-vintage As sparkling wine typically comes from cool climate areas where grapes have higher acidity than corresponding still wine produced from the same cultivar, there can be issues with achieving ideal sugar and potentially phenolic “ripeness”.
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Prise de Mousse/Secondary FermentationThe common ways of creating effervescence in wine are:
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Method Champenoise/The Traditional Method
Methode champenoise entails adding liqueur de tirage (a liquid solution of yeast, wine and sugar), and a combination of yeast and sugar into a tank containing finished still wine, to produce CO2. The wine is then bottled with a plastic bidule that sits at the neck of the bottle and is used to gather the yeast, and a crown cap (similar to a beer bottle cap, which was first utilized in Champagne in 1960). The bottles are then laid on their sides to maximize surface area exposed to the yeast. Groups of bottles are placed into a riddling rack or a metal cage, called a riddling box, for mechanical riddling for 6-8 weeks in cellars that are a relatively constant temperature, before being disgorged.
Liqueur de Tirage
As no fermentable sugars remain after primary fermentation, effervescence is created by adding liqueur de tirage, a solution of 20-24 grams/liter of beet or cane sugar to create an internal bottle pressure of 5-6 atmospheres (atm).13 It takes 3.0 to 4.3 grams per liter to increase one liter of wine, 1 atm of CO2 and 1.1-1.5% ABV (Jackson, Wine Science). The following is also added: Yeast, grown out in a glucose solution or incorporated into a stable gel matrix. The yeast type can vary based upon the parameters of the base wine. For example:
Other nutrients, including nitrogen and copper salts to reduce hydrogen sulfide production, and thiamine, which may counteract alcohol-induced inhibition of sugar uptake by yeast cells (Jackson, Wine Science). Duration and Temperature Duration: ~50 days. This is dependent on the temperature, pH, and sulfur dioxide content of the cuvée. Temperature: ~12-14ºC, a common fermentation temperature in Champagne (Liger-Belair, 2008).
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Maturation on Lees
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Maturation Aroma Compounds
Volatile thiols18
In Champagne: Benzenemethanethiol, 2-Furanmethanethiol, and Ethyl 3-mercaptopropionate were present in these wines at concentrations considerably higher than their perception thresholds. Their concentrations increased gradually in proportion to the bottle aging period and sharply as a result of disgorging.
Flavor attribute: Toasty.
In Cava, Francioli et al. found that if aged over 20 months age markers included:19
For a great summary on the current literature of sparkling wine yeast autolysis read:
Alexandre, H. and Guilloux-Benatier, M. (2006), Yeast autolysis in sparkling wine – a review. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 12: 119-127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-0238.2006.
Source: www.scribd.com/document/78997658/Yeast-Autolysis-in-Sparkling-Wine-A-Review-SUB
Additional Aging: Oenothèque (French)/ Enoteca (Italian)/ Vinothek (German): Traditionally meaning wine repository, this term references reserve bottles, ~10-20% of the vintage, that are aged longer in the wine cellar after the initial 80% that is released to the market. This maintains better quality control over the maturation of the bottles which may have otherwise been improperly stored, while also internalizing the profits from the high prices that secondary market fetches for vintage wines. This is also sometimes referred to as vinotheque (vinotheque can also mean that the base wine is aged longer prior to secondary fermentation).
Volatile thiols18
In Champagne: Benzenemethanethiol, 2-Furanmethanethiol, and Ethyl 3-mercaptopropionate were present in these wines at concentrations considerably higher than their perception thresholds. Their concentrations increased gradually in proportion to the bottle aging period and sharply as a result of disgorging.
Flavor attribute: Toasty.
In Cava, Francioli et al. found that if aged over 20 months age markers included:19
- Vitispiranes (floral fruity)
- 1,2-dihydro-1,1,6-trimethylnaphthalene (TDN) (Petrol)
- Diethyl succinate (Fruity).
For a great summary on the current literature of sparkling wine yeast autolysis read:
Alexandre, H. and Guilloux-Benatier, M. (2006), Yeast autolysis in sparkling wine – a review. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 12: 119-127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-0238.2006.
Source: www.scribd.com/document/78997658/Yeast-Autolysis-in-Sparkling-Wine-A-Review-SUB
Additional Aging: Oenothèque (French)/ Enoteca (Italian)/ Vinothek (German): Traditionally meaning wine repository, this term references reserve bottles, ~10-20% of the vintage, that are aged longer in the wine cellar after the initial 80% that is released to the market. This maintains better quality control over the maturation of the bottles which may have otherwise been improperly stored, while also internalizing the profits from the high prices that secondary market fetches for vintage wines. This is also sometimes referred to as vinotheque (vinotheque can also mean that the base wine is aged longer prior to secondary fermentation).
Transfer Method
The transfer method, which is allowed in some regions except for those that require the traditional method, follows the same process as the traditional method until the point of riddling..
Process After riddling:
Benefit The transfer method can be more cost-effective than the traditional method, and the utilization of large batches makes it easier to achieve consistency. Labeling Typically labeled: “bottle-fermented” rather than “traditional method” or “methode traditionnelle.” |
Riddling/RemuageThe yeast sediment that accumulated during secondary fermentation is moved into the bidule in the neck of the bottle to be disgorged (removed) via riddling. This can be done manually or mechanically.
Manual riddling
Mechanical riddling
DisgorgementThe Removal of Sediment
Process
Mechanical disgorgement: Once the plug is frozen, the bottle is placed onto a conveyor belt, where the machine pops the crown cap off each bottle to eject the plug of frozen yeast, which allows the wine to be shot out the bottle’s neck. For a great video, watch: Jamie Goode’s video How sparkling wine is bottled: a mobile disgorging line www.youtube.com/watch?v=fkyDcE9UT_0 Traditional disgorgement by hand (à la volée): The bottle is held upside down before being opened. It is then quickly tilted back upwards so that only enough wine is forced out to take the sediment with it. This technique is still used for very small or very large bottles and very old vintages. Sparkling Rosé Production ProcessSparkling Rosé is typically made in one of two ways:
Rosé d’assemblage:
Saignée method
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Bulk fermentation, which utilizes large pressurized tanks or autoclaves, was invented by Federico Martinotti in 1895 and then adapted by Eugene Charmat in 1907 (Prosecco.wine). It is also referred to as “Cuve Close” which translates from French to “Steel Tank”.
Ideal for:
Primary fermentation
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Secondary fermentation
Cuvée formulation: Wines are combined in pressurized stainless steel tanks called autoclaves with yeast, additives of ammonia and vitamins, and sugar (if necessary). Duration of fermentation: The wine may or may not be aged on the lees for up to 9 months. If there is extended lees contact, intermittent stirring is used to release amino acids from autolyzed yeast cells and prevent the formation of a thick layer of yeast cells, which can form sulfur taints (Wine Science). Stopping Secondary Fermentation
Carbon Dioxide Pressures Rosé and red sparkling wines are commonly finished sweet, with low CO2 pressures that vary depending on the specific wine region. They are typically either:
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Other Methods of Creating Effervescence
The Natural Method/ Pétillant naturel/
Méthode Ancestrale22 Grapes Specified by region or winemaker. Primary Fermentation: Typical for white winemaking. However, the wine is bottled while it is still fermenting, which results in a slightly carbonated wine. There are two styles that can be used:
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Found in:
Montlouis-sur-Loire Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée (Loire Valley)
Prosecco Col Fondo, (labeled “Frizzante”) Grapes: Glera 85% minimum. Wine: Typically white and bottled on the lees. For more on the process of natural method sparkling wines, read: Gardner, Denise M. “Technical Information about Pét-Nats (Pétillant Naturels, or Sparkling Wines Produced by Méthode Ancestrale).” Penn State Extension Wine & Grapes U., Penn State University, 2 Oct. 2015, psuwineandgrapes.wordpress.com/2015/10/02/technical-information-about-pet-nats-petillant-naturels-or-sparkling-wines-produced-by-methode-ancestrale/. |
Forced Carbonation
Process:
In a process similar to carbonating soda, the wine is injected with CO2.
Produces
Force carbonation does not impart any secondary fermentation characteristics to the base wine, however the base wine needs to be of good quality because carbonation may accentuate any wine faults (Jackson, Wine Science). Forced carbonation does not produce secondary flavors that come from other maturation processes.
Price
The least expensive production methodology.
In a process similar to carbonating soda, the wine is injected with CO2.
Produces
Force carbonation does not impart any secondary fermentation characteristics to the base wine, however the base wine needs to be of good quality because carbonation may accentuate any wine faults (Jackson, Wine Science). Forced carbonation does not produce secondary flavors that come from other maturation processes.
Price
The least expensive production methodology.
Dosage - A Touch of Sweetness
Dosage is the addition of “liqueur de dosage” to adjust the taste of the wine after disgorgement to balance out acidity and potentially highlight certain aromas.
- Poignettage is the process of integrating the dosage liqueur with the wine, the bottle is then shaken vigorously
- Liqueur de dosage: A mixture of sugar and the same wine as the bottle holds. The amount of sugar will vary and is often indicated on the bottle as:
Bottling Influence of bottle size
It should be noted that poor-quality glass with rough inner bottle walls can also be a source of greater numbers of nucleation sites and an inducer of gushing (Cordingley, AWRI, 2020). |
Final Production Steps
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Champagne Research Institute
The Georges CHAPPAZ Institute (IGC) at Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne
www.univ-reims.fr/igc-en/about-us/about-us,18291,31675.html
www.univ-reims.fr/igc-en/about-us/about-us,18291,31675.html
The Physics and Chemistry of Effervescence and Mousse (Foam)
The Foam in Sparkling Wine is Described in Two Ways:
The amount of effervescence (bubbles), which is the amount of dissolved gas in the bottle.
The ability for the bubbles to turn into a mousse (foam) instead of immediately popping and disappearing. This creates texture, and is referenced in the scientific literature as the Bikerman coefficient.27 Some cultivars of grapes can provide better foam stability than others. Andrés-Lacueva et al., (1997) found that Chardonnay gave Cava the best foam of the grapes tested, and was higher in total and neutral polysaccharides, soluble proteins, total polyphenols, absorbance at 280, 365, and 420 nm, titratable acidity, alcoholic content, conductivity, and malic acid, than the other wines studied. |
Bubble Formation in the Glass
Bubble formation, also known as bubble nucleation, forms where there are minute tartrate crystals or on “imperfections” in the glass, which are typically broken ends of cellulose fibers from drying cloths or dust particles. Some sparkling wine glasses even have laser-etched nucleation sites This occurs because these nucleation sites contain microscopic cavities that can trap air when wine is poured into the glass. The underlying research for this and more on bubble physics can be found in a 2008 literature review by Dr Gerard Liger-Belair of the Georges CHAPPAZ Institute (IGC) at Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne. This literature review also included the relevant theoretical equations that can be used to calculate CO2 solubilities and the following insight:28
To learn more on sparkling wine physics and Champagne in general, read: Dr Liger-Belair’s book, titled Uncorked: The Science of Champagne, which is available in both digital and print editions. |
Glass Shape
Glass shape influences the aroma of sparkling wine. The exact physics has been studied by Fabien, Liger-Belair, and Polidori in 2019. To summarize the paper:
Bubbles help to enhance the aroma of the wine by:
The researchers suspected a close link between both the presence of ascending bubbles and the glass shape, and the release of the numerous VOCs, and the gradual release of CO2 during a tasting. The Study By using four glasses of different shapes (champagne flute, tulip, coupe, ISO tasting glass/white wine glass) in which the time evolution of the liquid (i.e. the wine) and gaseous (i.e. CO2) phases of the wine in which the following was monitored:
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Found
As part of service, it should be noted that a cork exits a bottle of Champagne at a typical velocity of 50-60 km/hr (Liger-Belair, 2008), therefore safety is extremely important. |
Traditional Method Sparkling Wines
New World Sparkling Wine RegionsProduction Method
Most new world regions have required production methodologies for sparkling wine. This means they can range from Traditional Method to Forced Carbonation wines. Grapes Many of the New World Sparkling Wine Regions are based upon Chardonnay and Pinot Noir. Regions The New World sparkling wine regions mirror the cool weather (Winkler Ib and Winkler II) Chardonnay growing regions of the world. Australia:
New Zealand:
California:
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Resources and Suggested Reading
1. Little Ice Age. (n.d.). Retrieved November 19, 2021, from www.britannica.com/science/Little-Ice-Age
2. Le Comité Interprofessionnel du vin de Champagne. (n.d.). Effervescence. Retrieved November 19, 2021, from www.champagne.fr/en/from-vine-to-wine/what-is-champagne-wine/effervescence
3. Gardner, D. M. (2015, September 18). The bubbles: Basics about sparkling wine production techniques. Retrieved November 16, 2021, from psuwineandgrapes.wordpress.com/2015/09/18/the-bubbles-basics-about-sparkling-wine-or-sparkling-cider-production-techniques/
4. Liu, P.-H., Vrigneau, C., Salmon, T., Hoang, D. A., Boulet, J.-C., Jégou, S., & Marchal, R. (2018). Influence of Grape Berry Maturity on Juice and Base Wine Composition and Foaming Properties of Sparkling Wines from the Champagne Region. Molecules, 23(6), 1372. doi:10.3390/molecules23061372
5. Kupfer VM, Vogt EI, Ziegler T, Vogel RF, Niessen L. Comparative protein profile analysis of wines made from Botrytis cinerea infected and healthy grapes reveals a novel biomarker for gushing in sparkling wine. Food Res Int. 2017 Sep;99(Pt 1):501-509. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2017.06.004. Epub 2017 Jun 3. PMID: 28784511.
6. Australian Wine Research Institute. (2020, November). Sparkling wine gushing: Not a cause for celebration. Retrieved November 19, 2021, from www.awri.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/s2195.pdf
7. Marchal, Richard & Kemp, Belinda & Ménissier, & Oluwa, & Pannetier, & Whitehead, Claire & Whitehead, Danielle & Foss, Chris. (2012). Press fraction composition of sparkling must and base wine. www.researchgate.net/publication/261507528_Press_fraction_composition_of_sparkling_must_and_base_wine
8. Dambrouck, T., Marchal, R., Cilindre, C., Parmentier, M., & Jeandet, P. (2007). Determination (Using Immunoquantification) of the Grape Invertase Content upon Fining vs Changes in the Total Protein Content of Wine. Relationships with Wine Foaming Properties. Macromolecules and Secondary Metabolites of Grapevine and Wines, pp 205-211. Source: www.researchgate.net/publication/282811942_Determination_Using_Immunoquantification_of_the_Grape_Invertase_Content_upon_Fining_vs_Changes_in_the_Total_Protein_Content_of_Wine_Relationships_with_Wine_Foaming_Properties
9. Jeandet, Philippe. (2011). Sparkling Wine Production. www.researchgate.net/publication/278303662_Sparkling_Wine_Production
10. Gardner, D. M. (2015)
11. Australian Wine Research Institute. (2020, September). Malolactic fermentation in white and sparkling wines. Retrieved November 19, 2021, from www.awri.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/MLF-in-white-and-sparkling-wine.pdf
12. Guilloux-Benatier, M. (2006), Yeast autolysis in sparkling wine – a review. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 12: 119-127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-0238.2006.tb00051.x
Source: www.scribd.com/document/78997658/Yeast-Autolysis-in-Sparkling-Wine-A-Review-SUB
13. Bottling and secondary fermentation. (n.d.). Retrieved November 16, 2021, from www.champagne.fr/en/from-vine-to-wine/wine-making/bottling-and-secondary-fermentation
14. Massoutier, Catherine & Alexandre, Hervé & Feuillat, Michel & Charpentier, Claudine. (1998). Isolation and characterization of cryotolerant Saccharomyces strains. Vitis -Geilweilerhof-. 37. 55-59.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256766647_Isolation_and_characterization_of_cryotolerant_Saccharomyces_strains |
15. Babayan, T. L., Bezrukov, M. G., Latov, V. K., Belikov, V. M., Belavtseva, E. M., & Titova, E. F. (1981). Induced autolysis of Saccharomyces cerevisiae: morphological effects, rheological effects, and dynamics of accumulation of extracellular hydrolysis products. Current microbiology, 5(3), 163-168.
16. Piton, F., Charpentier, M., & Troton, D. (1988). Cell wall and lipid changes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae during aging of champagne wine. American journal of enology and viticulture, 39(3), 221-226. https://www.ajevonline.org/content/39/3/221.short
17. Andrés-Lacueva, C., Lamuela-Raventós, R. M., Buxaderas, S., & de la Torre-Boronat, M. D. C. (1997). Influence of variety and aging on foaming properties of cava (sparkling wine). 2. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 45(7), 2520-2525.
18. Tominaga T, Guimbertau G, Dubourdieu D. Role of certain volatile thiols in the bouquet of aged champagne wines. J Agric Food Chem. 2003 Feb 12;51(4):1016-20. doi: 10.1021/jf020755k. PMID: 12568565.
19. Francioli, S., Torrens, J., Riu-Aumatell, M., López-Tamames, E., & Buxaderas, S. (2003). Volatile compounds by SPME-GC as age markers of sparkling wines. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 54(3), 158-162.
20. Australian Wine Research Institute. (2020, November). Sparkling wine gushing: Not a cause for celebration. Retrieved November 19, 2021, from www.awri.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/s2195.pdf
21. Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau. (2018, August 10). TTB: Wine: Beverage alcohol manual. Retrieved November 19, 2021, from www.ttb.gov/wine/beverage-alcohol-manual
22. Gardner, Denise M. “Technical Information about Pét-Nats (Pétillant Naturels, or Sparkling Wines Produced by Méthode Ancestrale).” Penn State Extension Wine & Grapes U., Penn State University, 2 Oct. 2015, www.psuwineandgrapes.wordpress.com/2015/10/02/technical-information-about-pet-nats-petillant-naturels-or-sparkling-wines-produced-by-methode-ancestrale/.
23. Champagne.fr
24. Descoins, Charles & Mathlouthi, Mohamed & Moual, Michel & Hennequin, James. (2006). Carbonation monitoring of beverages in a laboratory scale unit with on-line measurement of dissolved CO2. Food Chemistry. 95. 541-553. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.11.031. www.researchgate.net/publication/222688104_Carbonation_monitoring_of_beverage_in_a_laboratory_scale_unit_with_on-line_measurement_of_dissolved_CO2
25. Lonvaud-Funel, A., & Matsumoto, N. (1979). Le coefficient de solubilité du gaz carbonique dans les vins. Vitis, 18, 137-147. https://doi.org/10.5073/vitis.1979.18.137-147.
26. Zoecklein, B. (n.d.). WINERY GASES: CARBON DIOXIDE, ARGON, AND NITROGEN. Wine/Enology Grape Chemistry Groupe at Va Tech Retrieved November 19, 2021, from
www.apps.fst.vt.edu/extension/enology/downloads/wm_issues/Winery%20Gases/Winery%20Gases1.pdf
27. Bikerman, J. J. (1973). Measurement of foaminess. In Foams (pp. 65-97). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
28. Liger-Belair, Gérard & Polidori, Guillaume & Jeandet, Philippe. (2008). Recent advances in the science of Champagne bubbles. Chemical Society reviews. 37. 2490-511. 10.1039/b717798b. www.researchgate.net/publication/23412886_Recent_advances_in_the_science_of_Champagne_bubbles
29. Fabien, Beaumont & Liger-Belair, Gérard & Polidori, Guillaume. (2019). Unsteady evolution of the two-phase flow in sparkling wine tasting and the subsequent role of glass shape. Experiments in Fluids. 60. 10.1007/s00348-019-2759-5. www.researchgate.net/publication/333786197_Unsteady_evolution_of_the_two-phase_flow_in_sparkling_wine_tasting_and_the_subsequent_role_of_glass_shape
2. Le Comité Interprofessionnel du vin de Champagne. (n.d.). Effervescence. Retrieved November 19, 2021, from www.champagne.fr/en/from-vine-to-wine/what-is-champagne-wine/effervescence
3. Gardner, D. M. (2015, September 18). The bubbles: Basics about sparkling wine production techniques. Retrieved November 16, 2021, from psuwineandgrapes.wordpress.com/2015/09/18/the-bubbles-basics-about-sparkling-wine-or-sparkling-cider-production-techniques/
4. Liu, P.-H., Vrigneau, C., Salmon, T., Hoang, D. A., Boulet, J.-C., Jégou, S., & Marchal, R. (2018). Influence of Grape Berry Maturity on Juice and Base Wine Composition and Foaming Properties of Sparkling Wines from the Champagne Region. Molecules, 23(6), 1372. doi:10.3390/molecules23061372
5. Kupfer VM, Vogt EI, Ziegler T, Vogel RF, Niessen L. Comparative protein profile analysis of wines made from Botrytis cinerea infected and healthy grapes reveals a novel biomarker for gushing in sparkling wine. Food Res Int. 2017 Sep;99(Pt 1):501-509. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2017.06.004. Epub 2017 Jun 3. PMID: 28784511.
6. Australian Wine Research Institute. (2020, November). Sparkling wine gushing: Not a cause for celebration. Retrieved November 19, 2021, from www.awri.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/s2195.pdf
7. Marchal, Richard & Kemp, Belinda & Ménissier, & Oluwa, & Pannetier, & Whitehead, Claire & Whitehead, Danielle & Foss, Chris. (2012). Press fraction composition of sparkling must and base wine. www.researchgate.net/publication/261507528_Press_fraction_composition_of_sparkling_must_and_base_wine
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