Aroma Compounds and their Descriptors

The charts provide generalizations about the relative percentage of aromatic compounds that exist in common spices as found by Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), Gas Chromatography Olfactory (GC-O) or the analytical method listed. This approach was taken because of the common variations in aroma compounds attributed to differences like environmental factors, plant varieties, cultivation practices, harvesting stage, method of storage and method of extraction. It should be noted that high concentrations of aromatic compounds generally but do not always proportionally correlate with flavor influence as some compounds can be more potent than others. We, however, have yet to find a resource that provides this information. For more on this concept:

​W. Grosch, Evaluation of the Key Odorants of Foods by Dilution Experiments, Aroma Models and Omission, Chemical Senses, Volume 26, Issue 5, June 2001, Pages 533–545, https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/26.5.533

Allspice/ Jamican Pepper (Pimenta dioica)

  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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Studies
Padmakumari, K. P., Sasidharan, I., & Sreekumar, M. M. (2011). Composition and antioxidant activity of essential oil of pimento (Pimenta dioica (L) Merr.) from Jamaica. Natural product research, 25(2), 152–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2010.526606

García-Fajardo J, Martínez-Sosa M, Estarrón-Espinosa M, Vilarem G, Gaset A, de Santos JM. Comparative study of the oil and supercritical CO2 extract of Mexican pimento (Pimenta dioica Merrill). Journal of Essential Oil Research. 1997;9:181-185. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241714084_Comparative_Study_of_the_Oil_and_Supercritical_CO2_Extract_of_Mexican_Pimento_Pimenta_dioica_Merrill

Martinez-Velazquez, M., Castillo-Herrera, G. A., Rosario-Cruz, R., Flores-Fernandez, J. M., Lopez-Ramirez, J., Hernandez-Gutierrez, R., & del Carmen Lugo-Cervantes, E. (2011). Acaricidal effect and chemical composition of essential oils extracted from Cuminum cyminum, Pimenta dioica and Ocimum basilicum against the cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari: Ixodidae). Parasitology research, 108, 481-487. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rodrigo-Rosario-Cruz/publication/46414691_Acaricidal_effect_and_chemical_composition_of_essential_oils_extracted_from_Cuminum_cyminum_Pimenta_dioica_and_Ocimum_basilicum_against_the_cattle_tick_Rhipicephalus_Boophilus_microplus_Acari_Ixodidae/

Mérida-Reyes, M.S.; Muñoz-Wug, M.A.; Oliva-Hernández, B.E.; Gaitán-Fernández, I.C.; Simas, D.L.R.; Ribeiro da Silva, A.J.; Pérez-Sabino, J.F. Composition and Antibacterial Activity of the Essential Oil from Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr. from Guatemala. Medicines 2020, 7, 59. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines7100059
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Image from AdobeStock/Narsil

Anise and Star Anise

Anise (Pimpinella anisum)

  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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Aroma compounds
​Anastasopoulou et al. (2020) specifically studied the aroma compounds in Pimpinella anisum seeds from Lisvori, Greece from hydrodistillation because they are used to make ouzo which has European Union Protected Geographic Indication status. While we could not find a publicly available version of the study, the abstract is it noted that Lesvos anise oil showed the most abundant identified metabolites to be trans-anethole, γ-himachalene, estragole and pseudoisoeugenyl 2-methylbutyrate.
Studies
Saibi S, Belhadj M, Benyoussef E-H (2012) Essential oil composition of Pimpinella anisum from Algeria. Analytical Chem Lett 2:401–404. Retrieved from: www.researchgate.net/publication/256081635_Essential_Oil_Composition_of_Pimpinella_anisum_from_Algeria

Aćimović, M. G., Tešević, V., Todosijević, M., Djisalov, J., & Oljaca, S. (2015). Compositional characteristics of the essential oil of Pimpinella anisum and Foeniculum vulgare grown in Serbia. Botanica Serbica, 39(1), 9-14. Retrieved from: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/299309795.pdf

Özcan, M. M., & Chalchat, J. C. (2006). Chemical composition and antifungal effect of anise (Pimpinella anisum L.) fruit oil at ripening stage. Annals of microbiology, 56, 353-358. Retrieved from: https://pages.uoregon.edu/chendon/coffee_literature/2006%20Annals%20Microbio.,%20Chemistry%20and%20antifungal%20of%20anise.pdf

Fitsiou, E.; Mitropoulou, G.; Spyridopoulou, K.; Tiptiri-Kourpeti, A.; Vamvakias, M.; Bardouki, H.; Panayiotidis, M.Ι.; Galanis, A.; Kourkoutas, Y.; Chlichlia, K.; et al. Phytochemical Profile and Evaluation of the Biological Activities of Essential Oils Derived from the Greek Aromatic Plant Species Ocimum basilicum, Mentha spicata, Pimpinella anisum and Fortunella margarita. Molecules 2016, 21, 1069. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21081069

Anastasopoulou, E., Graikou, K., Ganos, C., Calapai, G., & Chinou, I. (2020). Pimpinella anisum seeds essential oil from Lesvos island: Effect of hydrodistillation time, comparison of its aromatic profile with other samples of the Greek market. Safe use. Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association, 135, 110875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2019.110875
Picture
photo by: AdobeStock/ LP2Studio

Star Anise (Illicium verum)

  • Aroma Compounds
  • Stuides
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Studies

Gholivand, M. B., Rahimi-Nasrabadi, M., & Chalabi, H. (2009). Determination of essential oil components of star anise (Illicium verum) using simultaneous hydrodistillation–static headspace liquid-phase microextraction–gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Analytical Letters, 42(10), 1382-1397. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239738059_Determination_of_Essential_Oil_Components_of_Star_Anise_Illicium_verum_Using_Simultaneous_Hydrodistillation-Static_Headspace_Liquid-Phase_Microextraction-Gas_Chromatography_Mass_Spectrometry

Howes, M. J. R., Kite, G. C., & Simmonds, M. S. (2009). Distinguishing chinese star anise from japanese star anise using thermal desorption− gas chromatography− mass spectrometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 57(13), 5783-5789. Retrieved from: https://www.academia.edu/31298519/Distinguishing_Chinese_Star_Anise_from_Japanese_Star_Anise_Using_Thermal_Desorption_Gas_Chromatography_Mass_Spectrometry

Chai, X.; Huang, X.; Zhang, T.; Wu, K.; Duan, X.; Yu, H.; Liu, X. Comparative Study of E-Nose, GC-MS, and GC-IMS to Distinguish Star Anise Essential Oil Extracted Using Different Extraction Methods. Separations 2023, 10, 256. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations10040256
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photo by: AdobeStock/ Bigc Studio

Caraway

Caraway (Carum carvi)
  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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Studies

Essential oil composition of Cymbopogon winterianus. and Carum carvi. and their antimicrobial activities. Pharmaceutical Biology, 46(6), 437-441. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13880200802055917
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Iacobellis, N. S., Lo Cantore, P., Capasso, F., & Senatore, F. (2005). Antibacterial activity of Cuminum cyminum L. and Carum carvi L. essential oils. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 53(1), 57-61. Retrieved from: http://oldwww.unibas.it/utenti/iacobellis/pubblicazioni%20pdf/rivista%20internazionale/Iacobellis%20et%20al.,%202005.pdf

Laribi, B., Kouki, K., Mougou, A., & Marzouk, B. (2010). Fatty acid and essential oil composition of three Tunisian caraway (Carum carvi L.) seed ecotypes. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 90(3), 391-396. Retrieved from: https://www.academia.edu/68707184/Fatty_acid_and_essential_oil_composition_of_three_Tunisian_caraway_Carum_carvi_L_seed_ecotypes

Simic, A., Rančic, A., Sokovic, M. D., Ristic, M., Grujic-Jovanovic, S., Vukojevic, J., & Marin, P. D. (2008). ​
Picture
photo by: iAdobeStock/Lumistudio

Cardamom

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) "True Cardamom"
  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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Studies
Noumi, E.; Snoussi, M.; Alreshidi, M.M.; Rekha, P.-D.; Saptami, K.; Caputo, L.; De Martino, L.; Souza, L.F.; Msaada, K.; Mancini, E.; et al. Chemical and Biological Evaluation of Essential Oils from Cardamom Species. Molecules 2018, 23, 2818.
doi.org/10.3390/molecules23112818
Ashokkumar K, Vellaikumar S, Murugan M, Dhanya MK, Ariharasutharsan G, Aiswarya S, Akilan M, Warkentin TD and Karthikeyan A (2021) Essential Oil Profile Diversity in Cardamom Accessions From Southern India. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 5:639619.
doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.639619
Tarfaoui, K.; Brhadda, N.; Ziri, R.; Oubihi, A.; Imtara, H.; Haida, S.; Al kamaly, O.M.; Saleh, A.; Parvez, M.K.; Fettach, S.; et al. Chemical Profile, Antibacterial and Antioxidant Potential of Zingiber officinale Roscoe and Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton Essential Oils and Extracts. Plants 2022, 11, 1487.
https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11111487
Al-Zereini, W. A., Al-Trawneh, I. N., Al-Qudah, M. A., TumAllah, H. M., Al Rawashdeh, H. A., & Abudayeh, Z. H. (2022). Essential oils from Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton grains and Cinnamomum verum J. Presl barks: Chemical examination and bioactivity studies. J. Pharm. Pharmacogn. Res, 10, 173-185. Retrieved from: www.researchgate.net/profile/Wael-Al-Zereini-2/publication/355187650_Essential_oils_from_Elettaria_cardamomum_L_Maton_grains_and_Cinnamomum_verum_J_Presl_barks_Chemical_examination_and_bioactivity_studies/
For more insight

Lawrence, B. M. (2011, May 23). Progress in Essential Oils: Cardamom Oil. Perfumer & Flavorist. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from perfumerflavorist.com/fragrance/ingredients/article/21859352/progress-in-essential-oils

Lawrence, B. M. (2010, March 5). Progress in Essential Oils. Perfumer & Flavorist: Cardamom Oil. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from perfumerflavorist.com/flavor/ingredients/article/21858985/progress-in-essential-oils
(Large Cardamom/Black Cardamom/Korerima)(Amomum subulatum)
  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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Studies
Noumi, E.; Snoussi, M.; Alreshidi, M.M.; Rekha, P.-D.; Saptami, K.; Caputo, L.; De Martino, L.; Souza, L.F.; Msaada, K.; Mancini, E.; et al. Chemical and Biological Evaluation of Essential Oils from Cardamom Species. Molecules 2018, 23, 2818. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23112818

​Satyal, P., Dosoky, N. S., Kincer, B. L., & Setzer, W. N. (2012). Chemical compositions and biological activities of Amomum subulatum essential oils from Nepal. Natural product communications, 7(9), https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X1200700935

Joshi, R., Sharma, P., Sharma, V., Prasad, R., Sud, R. K., & Gulati, A. (2013). Analysis of the essential oil of large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.) growing in different agro-climatic zones of Himachal Pradesh, India. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 93(6), 1303-1309.
Picture
Large Cardamom photo by: iAdobeStock/ Swapan
“False Cardamom”
Often dried over an open fire leading to the aromatic influence of volatile phenols.
  • Amomum subulatum also known as “Indian cardamom”, “black cardamom” and“large cardamom”. This native to Sikkim,India is the most important commercialvariety (Noumi et al 2018).
  • Aframomum corrorima also known asEthiopian cardamom, false cardamom,and Korarimais is cultivated on a smallscale in some West African countries(Noumi et al 2018).
  • Lanxangia tsaoko (formerly Amomumtsao-ko) also known as Taso-ko is used inYunan, China and Vietnam. This is a rarecultivar in the United States and has littlearomatic compound data available.

Cinnamon

Cinnamon/Cylon cinnamon/ True Cinnamon:
(Cinnamomum verum/Cinnamomum zylanicum) 

Picture
photo by: iva/shutterstock
  • Aroma Compounds
  • Stuides
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For more insight
Lawrence, B. M. (2013, November 26). Progress in Essential Oils: Cinnamon Bark Oil and Extract, and Helichrysum Oil. Perfumer & Flavorist. Retrieved September 25, 2023, from https://www.perfumerflavorist.com/fragrance/ingredients/article/21857716/progress-in-essential-oils-cinnamon-bark-oil-and-extract-and-helichrysum-oil

Studies
Al-Zereini, W. A., Al-Trawneh, I. N., Al-Qudah, M. A., TumAllah, H. M., Al Rawashdeh, H. A., & Abudayeh, Z. H. (2022). Essential oils from Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton grains and Cinnamomum verum J. Presl barks: Chemical examination and bioactivity studies. J. Pharm. Pharmacogn. Res, 10, 173-185. : https://doi.org/10.56499/jppres21.1162_10.1.173
Liyanage, T., Madhujith, T., & Wijesinghe, K. G. G. (2017). Comparative study on major chemical constituents in volatile oil of true cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum Presl. Syn. C. zeylanicum Blum) and five wild cinnamon species grown in Sri Lanka. Tropical Agricultural Research, 28(3), 270–280. Retrieved from www.researchgate.net/publication/329366895_Comparative_study_on_major_chemical_constituents_in_volatile_oil_of_true_cinnamon_Cinnamomum_verum_Presl_syn_C_zeylanicum_Blum_and_five_wild_cinnamon_species_grown_in_Sri_Lanka

Unlu, M., Ergene, E., Unlu, G. V., Zeytinoglu, H. S., & Vural, N. (2010). Composition, antimicrobial activity and in vitro cytotoxicity of essential oil from Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume (Lauraceae). Food and Chemical Toxicology, 48, 3274–3280. Retrieved from September 5, 2023 www.academia.edu/14112891/Composition_antimicrobial_activity_and_in_vitro_cytotoxicity_of_essential_oil_from_Cinnamomum_zeylanicum_Blume_Lauraceae_

Lawrence, B. M. (2004, November 26). Progress in Essential Oils: Cinnamon Bark Oil and Extract, and Helichrysum Oil. Perfumer & Flavorist. Retrieved September 5, 2023, from https://www.perfumerflavorist.com/fragrance/ingredients/article/21857716/progress-in-essential-oils-cinnamon-bark-oil-and-extract-and-helichrysum-oil
*It is not usual for cinnamon bark oil to be devoid of eugenol.

Cassia/Cinnamon (Cinnamomum cassia)

  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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Studies
Jeyaratnam, N., Nour, A. H., Kanthasamy, R., Nour, A. H., Yuvaraj, A. R., & Akindoyo, J. O. (2016). Essential oil from Cinnamomum cassia bark through hydro distillation and advanced microwave assisted hydrodistillation. Industrial Crops and Products, 92, 57–66. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/27697845/Essential_oil_from_Cinnamomum_cassia_bark_through_hydrodistillation_and_advanced_microwave_assisted_hydrodistillation

Jose, A. J., Leela, N. K., Zachariah, T. J., & Rema, J. (2019). Evaluation of coumarin content and essential oil constituents in Cinnamomum cassia (Nees & T.Nees) J. Presl. Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops, 28(1), 43–51. https://doi.org/10.25081/josac.2019.v28.i1.5743
Picture
Image by AdobeStock/Valery12183

Other Cinnamon Types

​Vietnamese/Saigon cinnamon (Cinnamomum loureiroi)
Essential Oil obtained by supercritical fluid extraction of bark of young branches of Cinnamomum loureiroi from China was found by Jiang, Li, and Wang (2008) to primarily contain:
  • Cinnamaldehyde: 66.44 %
  • Copaene: 6.25 %
  • β-cadinene: 4.11 %
  • Calamenene: 3.84 %
  • Cadinadiene-4,9: 3.82 %

Studies
Jiang, Z. T., Li, R., & Wang, Y. (2008). Essential oil composition of Cinnamomum loureiroi grown in China extracted by supercritical fluid extraction. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 11(3), 267-270. https://doi.org/10.1080/0972060X.2008.10643629
​Indonesian cinnamon Cinnamomum burmannii
Essential Oil obtained by steam distillation and liquid-liquid extraction methods of stem bark, branch bark, and leaves of Cinnamomum burmannii from South Bandung, Indonesia was found by Fajar et al (2019) to primarily contain:
  •  Cinnamaldehyde: 68.3%-82%
  •  Cinnamyl acetate: 2.5%-16%
  •  Cinnamyl alcohol: 2.25%-4.6%
  •  Cinnamic acid: 3%-8%

Studies
Fajar, A., Ammar, G. A., Hamzah, M., Manurung, R., & Abduh, M. Y. (2019). Effect of tree age on the yield, productivity, and chemical composition of essential oil from Cinnamomum burmannii. Current Research on Bioscences and Biotechnology, 1(1), 17-22. Retrieved from: https://crbb-journal.com/ojs/index.php/crbb/article/download/23/10

Clove

  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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For more insight
Haro-González, J.N.; Castillo-Herrera, G.A.; Martínez-Velázquez, M.; Espinosa-Andrews, H. Clove Essential Oil (Syzygium aromaticum L.Myrtaceae): Extraction, Chemical Composition, FoodApplications, and Essential Bioactivity for Human Health.Molecules 2021, 26, 6387. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26216387

Lawrence, B. M. (2016, April 6). Progress in Essential Oils: Clove Oil. Perfumer & Flavorist. Retrieved September 5, 2023, from www.perfumerflavorist.com/fragrance/ingredients/article/21860521/progress-in-essential-oils
Lawrence, B. M. (2013, November 26). Progress in Essential Oils: Cinnamon Bark Oil and Extract, and Helichrysum Oil. Perfumer & Flavorist. Retrieved September 25, 2023, from www.perfumerflavorist.com/fragrance/ingredients/article/21857716/progress-in-essential-oils-cinnamon-bark-oil-and-extract-and-helichrysum-oil

Studies
Arun Waman, A. (2020). Essential oil composition of clove and nutmeg from Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. Indian Journal of Biochemistry and Biophysics (IJBB), 57(1), 95-100. Retrieved from: www.researchgate.net/publication/339528777_Essential_oil_composition_of_clove_and_nutmeg_from_Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands_India
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Chaieb, K.; Hajlaoui, H.; Zmantar, T.; Kahla-Nakbi, A.B.; Rouabhia, M.; Mahdouani, K.; Bakhrouf, A.The chemical compositionand biological activity ofclove essential oil, Eugeniacaryophyllata (Syzygiumaromaticum L. Myrtaceae): Ashort review. Phytother. Res.2007, 21, 501–506. Retrieved from www.researchgate.net/profile/Tarek-Zmantar/publication/6425926_The_Chemical_composition_and_biological_activity_of_clove_essential_oil_Eugenia_caryophyllata_Syzigium_aromaticum_L_Myrtaceae_A_short_review/
Picture
Image by AdobeStock/Amy LV
Grains of Paradise (Aframomum melegueta)
Also known as: melegueta pepper, guinea grains, guinea pepper, and alligator pepper
  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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Studies
Fernandez, X., Pintaric, C., Lizzani-Cuvelier, L., Loiseau, A. M., Morello, A., & Pellerin, P. (2006). Chemical composition of absolute and supercritical carbon dioxide extract of Aframomum melegueta. Flavour and fragrance journal, 21(1), 162-165. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229638546_Chemical_composition_of_absolute_and_supercritical_carbon_dioxide_extract_of_Aframomum_melegueta
Sugita, J., Yoneshiro, T., Hatano, T., Aita, S., Ikemoto, T., Uchiwa, H., Iwanaga, T., Kameya, T., Kawai, Y. and Saito, M., 2013. Grains of paradise (Aframomum melegueta) extract activates brown adipose tissue and increases whole-body energy expenditure in men. British Journal of Nutrition, 110(4), pp.733-738. Retrieved from: www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-nutrition/article/grains-of-paradise-aframomum-melegueta-extract-activates-brown-adipose-tissue-and-increases-wholebody-energy-expenditure-in-men/517F8F0D73864C919E42D502537BA01D
Kamte, S.L.N.; Ranjbarian, F.; Campagnaro, G.D.; Nya, P.C.B.; Mbuntcha, H.; Woguem, V.; Womeni, H.M.; Ta, L.A.; Giordani, C.; Barboni, L.; et al. Trypanosoma brucei Inhibition by Essential Oils from Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Traditionally Used in Cameroon (Azadirachta indica, Aframomum melegueta, Aframomum daniellii, Clausena anisata, Dichrostachys cinerea and Echinops giganteus). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 737. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14070737
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Grains of Paradise photo by: iAdobeStock/ Picture Partners

Pepper

General Aroma compounds

​Piperine (Geffroy, Kleiber, & Jacques, 2020)
Rather than a strictly volatile aromatic compound, piperiene is and its stereoisomer chavicine are responsible for the pungent character which stimulates the trigeminal nerve. During the storage of peppercorns, chavicine is slowly transformed into piperine, which leads to a decrease in the pungent character.

Rotundone (C15H220)
This highly potent aroma compound, while accounting for a minor percentage of the overall aromatic compounds, is primarily responsible for the “pepper” aroma. It was only formally identified by Wood et al. (2008) in the research of Australian Syrah wine, and is difficult to detect therefore we have not found a study quantifying its presence. Its formation, as suggested by Huang et al (2014), is the aerial oxidation of α-guaiene. Previous to this study pepper’s aroma was thought to be caused by a mix of aroma compounds rather than a single aroma compound. The reason for its late identification, and its non-identification in the Piper spp. GCMS research can be attributed to:
  • The molecule is present at very low concentrations and it can co-elute (extract at the sametime as another volatile compound) making its detection difficult.
  • Appears late during GC-O sessions, at a time when judges are usually less attentive because no molecule of interest is expected.
  • Has no smell to some people (anosmia).

For more on rotundone
Wood, C., Seibert, T.E., Parker, M., Capone, D.L., Elsey, G.M., Pollnitz, A.P., Eggers, M., Manfred, M., Vössing, T. and Widder, S., 2008. Spice up your life—The rotundone story. In Expression of Multidisciplinary Flavour Science: Proceedings of the 12th Weurman Symposium. ZHAW Zürcher Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften (pp. 483-485). 
 https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/154925551.pdf#page=498
Pepper (Piper nigrum)
  • Piper Nigrum Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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Piper nigrum aroma compounds
​Studies
Huang, A. C., Burrett, S., Sefton, M. A., & Taylor, D. K. (2014). Production of the pepper aroma compound,(−)-rotundone, by aerial oxidation of α-guaiene. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 62(44), 10809-10815. Retrieved from researchgate.net/publication/266949983_Production_of_the_Pepper_Aroma_Compound--Rotundone_by_Aerial_Oxidation_of_a-Guaiene

Geffroy, O., Kleiber, D., & Jacques, A. (2020). May peppery wines be the spice of life? A review of research on the ‘pepper’ aroma and the sesquiterpenoid rotundone. OENO One, 54(2), 245–262.
https://doi.org/10.20870/oeno-one.2020.54.2.2947

Liu, L., Song, G., & Hu, Y. (2007). GC–MS Analysis of the Essential Oils of Piper nigrum L. and Piper longum L. Chromatographia, 66, 785-790. Retrieved from researchgate.net/publication/225526105_GC-MS_Analysis_of_the_Essential_Oils_of_Piper_nigrumL_and_Piper_longumL

Tchoumbougnang, F., Jazet, D. P. M., Sameza, M. L., Fombotioh, N., Vyry, W. N. A., Henri, A. Z. P., & Menut, C. (2009). Comparative essential oils composition and insecticidal effect of different tissues of Piper capense L., Piper guineense Schum. et Thonn., Piper nigrum L. and Piper umbellatum L. grown in Cameroon. African Journal of Biotechnology, 8(3). www.ajol.info/index.php/ajb/article/view/59831

Sasidharan, I., & Menon, A. N. (2010). Piper nigrum L. International Journal of Biological and Medical Research, 1(4), 215-218. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=b2a94a2526f267810ec3fe3e153d3d2b0baee431

Dosoky, N.S.; Satyal, P.; Barata, L.M.; da Silva, J.K.R.; Setzer, W.N. Volatiles of Black Pepper Fruits (Piper nigrum L.). Molecules 2019, 24, 4244. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24234244

​Jirovetz, L., Buchbauer, G., Ngassoum, M. B., & Geissler, M. (2002). Aroma compound analysis of Piper nigrum and Piper guineense essential oils from Cameroon using solid-phase microextraction–gas chromatography, solid-phase microextraction–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and olfactometry. Journal of Chromatography A, 976(1-2), 265-275. Retrieved from: www.academia.edu/1845116/Aroma_compound_analysis_of_i_Piper_nigrum_i_and_i_Piper_guineense_i_essential_oils_from_Cameroon_using_solid_phase_microextraction_gas_chromatography
For more insight into Piper nigrum essential oil
Lawrence, B. M. (2010, April 9). Progress in Essential Oils: Black and White Pepper Oil. Perfumer & Flavorist. Retrieved September 6, 2023, from www.perfumerflavorist.com/flavor/ingredients/article/21859110/progress-in-essential-oils
Common Cultivars and species

Black, White and Green Pepper
Piper nigrum is the species thought of as black, white and green pepper, with the difference being picking and processing time where:
  • Black pepper is picked slightly before full fruit maturity.
  • White pepper is fully ripened fruits with outer skin removed.
  • Green pepper is the green unripe fruits.

Pink peppercorn
The European Union Novel Food Catalogue notes that like many other species in the family Anacardiaceae, those in the Schinus species have aromatic sap that contains urushiol which can cause skin reactions in some sensitive people and negative reaction to those allergic to Anacardiaceae nuts like cashew nuts, pistachio nuts, mango, and Brazil nuts.
  • Schinus molle (Peruvian peppertree), sold by spice companies like Kalustyan’s in New York City, has Food and Drug Administration "Generally Recognized As Safe" (GRAS) status (ESO, GRAS - 182.20). For more fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/food-additive-status-list
  • Schinus terebinthifolia (Brazilian pepper aka christmas berry in Hawaii) is available from purveyors like McCormick and San Francisco Spice Company. The ingredient does not have Food and Drug Administration on the "Generally Recognized As Safe" (GRAS) status, but is noted on the EU Novel Food Catalog as being on the market and consumed to a significant degree before May 15, 1997 thus its access to the market is not subject to the Novel Food Regulation (EU) 2015/2283.
Cubeb (Piper cubeba)
  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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Studies
​Singh, G., Kiran, S., Marimuthum, P., Perotti, M. E., Schuf de Heluani, C., & Catalan, C. A. N. (2008). Chemistry, biocidal and antioxidant activities of essential oil and oleoresins from Piper cubeba (seed). Retrieved from researchgate.net/publication/233677516_Chemistry_biocidal_and_antioxidant_activities_of_essential_oil_and_oleoresins_from_Piper_cubeba_seed

Singh, G., Marimuthu, P., Heluani, C. S. D., & Catalan, C. A. (2007). Chemical constituents, antioxidative and antimicrobial activities of essential oil and oleoresin of tailed pepper (Piper cubeba L). International Journal of Food Engineering, 3(6). Retrieved from researchgate.net/publication/250147410_Chemical_Constituents_Antioxidative_and_Antimicrobial_Activities_of_Essential_Oil_and_Oleoresin_of_Tailed_Pepper_Piper_Cubeba

​Andriana, Y., Xuan, T. D., Quy, T. N., Tran, H. D., & Le, Q. T. (2019). Biological activities and chemical constituents of essential oils from Piper cubeba Bojer and Piper nigrum L. Molecules, 24(10), 1876. https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/24/10/1876
​
Alminderej, F.; Bakari, S.; Almundarij, T.I.; Snoussi, M.; Aouadi, K.; Kadri, A. Antioxidant Activities of a New Chemotype of Piper cubeba L. Fruit Essential Oil (Methyleugenol/Eugenol): In Silico Molecular Docking and ADMET Studies. Plants 2020, 9, 1534. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9111534
Ashanti Pepper/West African Pepper (Piper guineense)
  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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Studies
Tchoumbougnang, F., Jazet, D. P. M., Sameza, M. L., Fombotioh, N., Vyry, W. N. A., Henri, A. Z. P., & Menut, C. (2009). Comparative essential oils composition and insecticidal effect of different tissues of Piper capense L., Piper guineense Schum. et Thonn., Piper nigrum L. and Piper umbellatum L. grown in Cameroon. African Journal of Biotechnology, 8(3). www.ajol.info/index.php/ajb/article/view/59831
Jirovetz, L., Buchbauer, G., Ngassoum, M. B., & Geissler, M. (2002). Aroma compound analysis of Piper nigrum and Piper guineense essential oils from Cameroon using solid-phase microextraction–gas chromatography, solid-phase microextraction–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and olfactometry. Journal of Chromatography A, 976(1-2), 265-275. Retrieved from:
www.academia.edu/1845116/Aroma_compound_analysis_of_i_Piper_nigrum_i_and_i_Piper_guineense_i_essential_oils_from_Cameroon_using_solid_phase_microextraction_gas_chromatography
Piper species
Picture
Black Pepper photo by: iva/shutterstock
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Cubeb photo by:AdobeStock/Thomas Klee
Picture
Ashanti Pepper photo by: wikipedia/Fornax

Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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General aroma compounds
The major constituents of oleoresin in ginger rhizomes provide “spicy aromas” and consist of:

Gingerols (GNs)
A group of volatile phenolic compounds.
  • Taste: The pungent taste of fresh ginger rhizome.
  • Types
    • Gingerol (6-GN) is the major compound of the rhizome responsible for the pungency.
    • Other GNs, such as 4-, 8-, 10- and 12-GN, are present in lesser concentrations.
    • Homologues (groups of molecules that only differ in the number of methylene groups) of [10]-dehydrogingerdione, [6]-gingerdione and [10]-gingerdione

Shogaols (SGs)
Transformed from gingerol, by dehydration reactions (loss of H2O) that can be catalyzed by heat, especially when dried at above 70 °C (158°F) or by acidity.
  • Taste: Impart a pungent and spicy-sweet fragrance (Wohlmuth et al., 2005). During the preparation of dried ginger, GNs are also rapidly converted to the corresponding SGs, of which 6-SG is the most common dehydration product.
  • Type: Correspond to the Gingerol type. For example 6-GN is transformed to 6-SG

Zingerone
Formed during drying by the dehydration of shogaol homologues. These have a lower pungency than gingerol and a spicy-sweet aroma.
 Studies
Kumar Poudel, D., Dangol, S., Rokaya, A., Maharjan, S., Kumar Ojha, P., Rana, J., ... & Setzer, W. N. (2022). Quality assessment of Zingiber officinale Roscoe essential oil from Nepal. Natural Product Communications, 17(3). Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1934578X221080322 

Singh, G., Kapoor, I. P. S., Singh, P., de Heluani, C. S., de Lampasona, M. P., & Catalan, C. A. (2008). Chemistry, antioxidant and antimicrobial investigations on essential oil and oleoresins of Zingiber officinale. Food and chemical toxicology, 46(10), 3295-3302.Retrieved from: www.academia. edu/17392191/Chemistry_antioxidant_ and_antimicrobial_investigations_ on_essential_oil_and_oleoresins_of_ Zingiber_officinale

Nam, D.-G.; Kim, M.; Choe, J.-S.; Choi, A.-j. Effects of High-Pressure, Hydrothermal, and Enzyme-Assisted Treatment on the Taste and Flavor Profile of Water-Soluble Ginger (Zingiber officinale) Extract. Foods 2022, 11, 508. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11040508
​
Tarfaoui, K.; Brhadda, N.; Ziri, R.; Oubihi, A.; Imtara, H.; Haida, S.; Al kamaly, O.M.; Saleh, A.; Parvez, M.K.; Fettach, S.; et al. Chemical Profile, Antibacterial and Antioxidant Potential of Zingiber officinale Roscoe and Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton Essential Oils and Extracts. Plants 2022, 11, 1487.  https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11111487

​Galangal "Greater Galangal" (Alpinia galanga)

Picture
photo by: Shutterstock/ PHENPHAYOM
  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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Major non-volatile compounds
Phenolic compounds like 1′S-1′-acetoxychavicol acetate (ACA). This provides A. galanga’s characteristic pungent aroma.
Studies
Raina, Archana & Abraham, Z. (2017). Essential oil profiling of Alpinia species from southern India. Indian journal of experimental biology. 55. 776-781. Retrieved from www.researchgate.net/publication/320755617_Essential_oil_profiling_of_Alpinia_species_from_southern_India

Raina, V. K., Srivastava, S. K., & Syamasunder, K. V. (2002). The essential oil of ‘greater galangal’[Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd.] from the lower Himalayan region of India. Flavour and fragrance journal, 17(5), 358-360. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/5082983/The_essential_oil_of_greater_galangal_Alpinia_galanga_L_Willd_from_the_lower_Himalayan_region_of_India

Archana P. Raina, S.K. Verma & Z. Abraham (2013) Volatile constituents of essential oils isolated from Alpinia galanga Willd. (L.) and A. officinarum Hance rhizomes from North East India, Journal of Essential Oil Research, 26:1, 24-28, Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262894189_Volatile_constituents_of_essential_oils_isolated_from_Alpinia_galanga_Willd_L_and_A_officinarum_Hance_rhizomes_from_North_East_India

Rana, V. S., Verdeguer, M., & Blazquez, M. A. (2010). GC and GC/MS analysis of the volatile constituents of the oils of Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd and A. officinarum Hance rhizomes. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 22(6), 521-524. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239525792_GC_and_GCMS_Analysis_of_the_Volatile_Constituents_of_the_Oils_of_Alpinia_galanga_L_Willd_and_A_officinarum_Hance_Rhizomes

Pooter, H. L. D., Omar, M. N., Coolsaet, B. A., & Schamp, N. M. (1985). The essential oil of greater galanga (Alpinia galanga) from Malaysia. Phytochemistry, 24(1), 93–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)80814-6 Retrieved from: https://www.academia.edu/10534296/The_essential_oil_of_greater_galanga_Alpinia_galanga_from_Malaysia

​Galangal "Lesser Galanagal" (Alpinia officinarum)

  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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Major non-volatile compounds
Flavonoids and diarylheptanoids. More than 50 diarylheptanoids have been extracted from A. officinarum.
For more insight
Van, H. T., Thang, T. D., Luu, T. N., & Doan, V. D. (2021). An overview of the chemical composition and biological activities of essential oils from Alpinia genus (Zingiberaceae). RSC advances, 11(60), 37767–37783. Retrieved from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9044187/

Studies
Ly, T. N., Yamauchi, R., & Kato, K. (2001). Volatile components of the essential oils in galanga (Alpinia officinarum Hance) from Vietnam. Food Science and Technology Research, 7(4), 303-306. Retrieved from: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/fstr/7/4/7_4_303/_pdf

Rana, V. S., Verdeguer, M., & Blazquez, M. A. (2010). GC and GC/MS analysis of the volatile constituents of the oils of Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd and A. officinarum Hance rhizomes. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 22(6), 521-524. www.researchgate.net/publication/239525792_GC_and_GCMS_Analysis_of_the_Volatile_Constituents_of_the_Oils_of_Alpinia_galanga_L_Willd_and_A_officinarum_Hance_Rhizomes

Long, Q.; Li, Z.; Han, B.; Gholam Hosseini, H.; Zhou, H.; Wang, S.; Luo, D. Discrimination of Two Cultivars of Alpinia Officinarum Hance Using an Electronic Nose and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Coupled with Chemometrics. Sensors 2019, 19, 572. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19030572

P. Raina, S.K. Verma & Z. Abraham (2014) Volatile constituents of essential oils isolated from Alpinia galanga Willd. (L.) and A. officinarum Hance rhizomes from North East India, Journal of Essential Oil Research, 26:1, 24-28, Retrieved from: www.researchgate.net/publication/262894189_Volatile_constituents_of_essential_oils_isolated_from_Alpinia_galanga_Willd_L_and_A_officinarum_Hance_rhizomes_from_North_East_India
Picture
photo by: Shutterstock/ PHENPHAYOM

Myoga

  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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General aroma compounds
The pungent principle of myoga flower buds was identified as (E)-8β(17)-epoxylabd-12-ene-15,16-dial (miogadial) and 2-alkyl-3-methoxypyrazine. These however do not show upon the GCMS Results of many ofthe studies, though it may alsonot be tested for, or it may beinterpreted differently (Abe et al.2002) (Abe at al. 2004).
Studies
Abe, M., Ozawa, Y., Uda, Y., Yamada, Y., Morimitsu, Y., Nakamura, Y., & Osawa, T. (2002). Labdane-type diterpene dialdehyde, pungent principle of myoga, Zingiber mioga Roscoe. Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry, 66(12), 2698-2700. Retrieved from: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/bbb/66/12/66_12_2698/_pdf

Abe, M., Ozawa, Y., Uda, Y., Yamada, F., Morimitsu, Y., Nakamura, Y., & Osawa, T. (2004). Antimicrobial activities of diterpene dialdehydes, constituents from myoga (Zingiber mioga Roscoe), and their quantitative analysis. Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry, 68(7), 1601-1604. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1271/bbb.68.1601

Lee, J. W., Chon, S. U., Han, S. K., Ryu, J., & Choi, D. G. (2007). Effects of Antioxidant and Flavor Compionents of Zingiber mioga Rosc. Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science, 15(3), 203-209. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sang-Uk-Chon/publication/264021188_Effects_of_Antioxidant_and_Flavor_Compionents_of_Zingiber_mioga_Rosc

Kurobayashi, Y., Sakakibara, H., Yanai, T., Yajima, I., & Hayashi, K. (1991). Volatile Flavor Compounds of Myoga (Zingiber Mioga). Agricultural and biological chemistry, 55(6), 1655-1657. Retrieved from: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/bbb1961/55/6/55_6_1655/_pdf
Picture
photo by: Shutterstock/ SUCHARUT CHOUNYOO

Turmeric

  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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For more insight
Ibáñez, M.D.; Blázquez, M.A. Curcuma longa L. Rhizome Essential Oil from Extraction to Its Agri-Food Applications. A Review. Plants 2021, 10, 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10010044

Lawrence, B. M. (2016, February 29). Progress in Essential Oils: Turmeric Oil, Part 1. Perfumer & Flavorist. Retrieved September 6, 2023, from www.perfumerflavorist.com/flavor/ingredients/ article/21860830/progress-in-essential-oils-turmeric-oil-part-1

Lawrence, B. M. (2016, March 25). Progress in Essential Oils: Turmeric Oil, Part 2. Perfumer & Flavorist. Retrieved September 6, 2023, from www.perfumerflavorist.com/fragrance/ingredients/ article/21861274/progress-in-essential-oils-turmeric-oil-part-2
Studies
Duong L, Mentreddy SR, Satyal R, Satyal P, Setzer WN. Essential Oil Chemotypes of Four Vietnamese Curcuma Species Cultivated in North Alabama. Horticulturae. 2022; 8(5):360. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8050360

​Dosoky, N.S.; Satyal, P.; Setzer, W.N. Variations in the Volatile Compositions of Curcuma Species. Foods 2019, 8, 53. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8020053
*The primary rhizome is known as “mother rhizome” or bulb. The branches of mother rhizomes are the secondary rhizomes. These are called lateral or “finger rhizomes” or daughter rhizomes.

Vanilla

Common Cultivars
While there are many different species of Vanilla orchids, the the primary species is Vanilla planifolia with Vanilla x tahitiensis being a hybrid of the species. In a good literature review by Brunschwig et al (2017), it was noted:

Vanilla aka Madagascar Vanilla aka Bourbon Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia)

Primary aroma compounds:
  • Vanillin which constitutes a large percentage of the aromatic compounds found.
  • Volatile phenols like guaiacol, creosol, p-cresol and phenol which have relatively low concentrations but high aromatic contribution.

The major growing regions include:

Tahitian Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia x tahitiensis)

Primary aromatic compounds:
  • 4-methoxylated compounds including anisyl alcohol, anisaldehyde and isovanillin which have an anise-like aroma,
  • Vanillyl derivatives like vanillin, vanillic acid, and vanillyl alcohol.

The primary growing locations include:
  • French Polynesia which is regulated by the trade organization Vanille de Tahiti in (vanilledetahiti.com). Here, different cultivars of the hybrid include “Tahiti” and “Haapape”.
  • Papua New Guinea which uses a different curing method during production than in French Polynesia (Brunschwig et al. 2017).

Vanilla pompona (Vanilla planifolia x pompona)

Primary aroma compounds
  • de Oliveira et al (2022) notes in a literature review that Vanillin was the highest though in a much lesser concentration than V. planifolia, This was followed by anisyl alcohol and p-hydroxybenzoic alcohol.

The major growing regions
  • ​This species is not widely grown but is gaining traction.

For more
Galeas, Maria del Pilar. Gas chromatography - mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-olfactometry analysis of aroma compounds of vanilla pompona schiede.
https://doi.org/doi:10.7282/T30G3MW5
Vanilla Production 

Vanilla Production Process
Unlike many spices with a generally Laissez-faire production process that entails letting the plant grow, harvesting and drying after harvest, Vanilla is significantly more labor intensive. Due to this involved process which turns an unflavored green pod into an aromatic spice, there is significant variation caused by the production process. This shall be discussed in a separate article.

Vanilla Extract
Produced by extraction in at least 35% ethanol its production is codified in the US Code of Federal Regulations § 169.3(c). Additionally United States FDA requires 13.35 oz of vanilla bean per gallon of extract with “double fold” extract having 26.70 oz (13.35x2) oz of vanilla bean per gallon.
Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia)
  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
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Vanilla planifolia by different extraction types
Vanilla planifolia by GC-O
Odour Specific Magnitude Estimation (OSME) values reflect the aromatic intensity of the stimulus. The higher the number, the more intense the aroma.
Brunschwig, C., Senger-Emonnot, P., Aubanel, M.L., Pierrat, A., George, G., Rochard, S. and Raharivelomanana, P., 2012. Odor-active compounds of Tahitian vanilla flavor. Food Research International, 46(1), pp.148-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.12.006

Brunschwig C, Rochard S, Pierrat A, Rouger A, Senger-Emonnot P, George G, et al. Volatile composition and sensory properties of V. ×tahitensis bring new insights for vanilla quality control. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2016;96:848–858.
DOI:10.1002/jsfa.7157

Brunschwig, C., Collard, F.-X., Lepers-Andrzejewski, S., & Raharivelomanana, P. (2017). Tahitian Vanilla (Vanilla ×tahitensis): A Vanilla Species with Unique Features. InTech. https://doi.org/10.5772/66621
​
de Oliveira, R.T.; da Silva Oliveira, J.P.; Macedo, A.F. Vanilla beyond Vanilla planifolia and Vanilla × tahitensis: Taxonomy and Historical Notes, Reproductive Biology, and Metabolites. Plants 2022, 11, 3311. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11233311

​Yeh, C.-H.; Chen, K.-Y.; Chou, C.-Y.; Liao, H.-Y.; Chen, H.-C. New Insights on Volatile Components of Vanilla planifolia Cultivated in Taiwan. Molecules 2021, 26, 3608. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26123608

Yeh, C.-H.; Chou, C.-Y.; Wu, C.-S.; Chu, L.-P.; Huang, W.-J.; Chen, H.-C. Effects of Different Extraction Methods on Vanilla Aroma. Molecules 2022, 27, 4593. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27144593

Shigeto, A., Hachisuka, S., & Kumazawa, K. (2016). Characterization of potent odorants in three different cultivars (madagascar, comoro and tahiti) of vanilla bean by Aroma Extract Dilution Analysis (AEDA). Food Science and Technology Research, 22(6), 811-816. www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/fstr/22/6/22_811/_html/-char/en
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Takahashi, M., Inai, Y., Miyazawa, N., Kurobayashi, Y., & Fujita, A. (2013). Identification of the key odorants in Tahitian cured vanilla beans (Vanilla tahitensis) by GC-MS and an aroma extract dilution analysis. Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry, 77(3), 601–605. https://doi.org/10.1271/bbb.120840
Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia x tahitensis)
  • Aroma Compounds
  • Studies
<
>
Odour Specific Magnitude Estimation (OSME) values reflect the aromatic intensity of the stimulus. The higher the number, the more intense the aroma.
Brunschwig, C., Senger-Emonnot, P., Aubanel, M.L., Pierrat, A., George, G., Rochard, S. and Raharivelomanana, P., 2012. Odor-active compounds of Tahitian vanilla flavor. Food Research International, 46(1), pp.148-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.12.006

Brunschwig C, Rochard S, Pierrat A, Rouger A, Senger-Emonnot P, George G, et al. Volatile composition and sensory properties of V. ×tahitensis bring new insights for vanilla quality control. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2016;96:848–858.
DOI:10.1002/jsfa.7157

Brunschwig, C., Collard, F.-X., Lepers-Andrzejewski, S., & Raharivelomanana, P. (2017). Tahitian Vanilla (Vanilla ×tahitensis): A Vanilla Species with Unique Features. InTech. https://doi.org/10.5772/66621
​
de Oliveira, R.T.; da Silva Oliveira, J.P.; Macedo, A.F. Vanilla beyond Vanilla planifolia and Vanilla × tahitensis: Taxonomy and Historical Notes, Reproductive Biology, and Metabolites. Plants 2022, 11, 3311. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants1123331