Flavor = Taste + Chemesthesis + Aroma
Begin with the end in mind. When developing a recipe, having an overarching concept can be useful. As it pertains to cocktail menu development, this can help to set a conceptual balance of offerings. While A Guide to Cocktail Construction (hawaiibevguide.com/a-guide-to-cocktail-construction) provides a framework for thinking about individual cocktails, it does not address which cocktail formula to start with, nor does it address making philosophical/artistic ingredient choices. While these ingredient swaps and additions can also be very much an artistic choice, there are general guidelines that help to narrow down the universe of ingredients, maximize the art, and make the process more efficient.
The following article can be thought of as a reference to the Michelangelo quote, “Every block of stone has a statue inside it and it is the task of the sculptor to discover it”. Instead of building a recipe from scratch, taking a conceptual approach is like taking the universe of thought and flavor and narrowing then narrowing the choices. More detailed insight into specific ingredient options and how to use them will be discussed in a future article.
Begin with the end in mind. When developing a recipe, having an overarching concept can be useful. As it pertains to cocktail menu development, this can help to set a conceptual balance of offerings. While A Guide to Cocktail Construction (hawaiibevguide.com/a-guide-to-cocktail-construction) provides a framework for thinking about individual cocktails, it does not address which cocktail formula to start with, nor does it address making philosophical/artistic ingredient choices. While these ingredient swaps and additions can also be very much an artistic choice, there are general guidelines that help to narrow down the universe of ingredients, maximize the art, and make the process more efficient.
The following article can be thought of as a reference to the Michelangelo quote, “Every block of stone has a statue inside it and it is the task of the sculptor to discover it”. Instead of building a recipe from scratch, taking a conceptual approach is like taking the universe of thought and flavor and narrowing then narrowing the choices. More detailed insight into specific ingredient options and how to use them will be discussed in a future article.
General Feel
Cocktail Story/Theme
Telling a story with a menu can serve as a useful advertising tool, because it helps a guest better contextualize their potential experience. It can also help to communicate the ambiance of the establishment. From an execution perspective, a focus on storytelling can also help to narrow down the universe of flavors/ingredients to be used to make the menu. For example, one could utilize the ingredients found in A Guide to: Japanese Flavors (hawaiibevguide.com/a-guide-to-japanese-flavors), to build a Japanese Whiskey cocktail or shochu cocktail and tell a story related to Japan.
Telling a story with a menu can serve as a useful advertising tool, because it helps a guest better contextualize their potential experience. It can also help to communicate the ambiance of the establishment. From an execution perspective, a focus on storytelling can also help to narrow down the universe of flavors/ingredients to be used to make the menu. For example, one could utilize the ingredients found in A Guide to: Japanese Flavors (hawaiibevguide.com/a-guide-to-japanese-flavors), to build a Japanese Whiskey cocktail or shochu cocktail and tell a story related to Japan.
Cocktail Flavor Intensity
The initial question when developing a cocktail is often, light and refreshing versus spirit forward, as was initially presented in our Cocktail Formula Table. However, a better initial first question might be, “What level of complexity/flavor intensity is desirable?” The flavor intensity of an ingredient is dictated by the concentration of its flavor compounds and the general intensity of the compounds it contains. The general intensity of each compound can be measured by its odor threshold, which is defined as the lowest concentration of an aroma compound that is perceivable by the human sense of smell.
The initial question when developing a cocktail is often, light and refreshing versus spirit forward, as was initially presented in our Cocktail Formula Table. However, a better initial first question might be, “What level of complexity/flavor intensity is desirable?” The flavor intensity of an ingredient is dictated by the concentration of its flavor compounds and the general intensity of the compounds it contains. The general intensity of each compound can be measured by its odor threshold, which is defined as the lowest concentration of an aroma compound that is perceivable by the human sense of smell.
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High flavor intensity cocktails
These cocktails are predominantly created from ingredients high in aroma compounds/essential oils relative to the overall volume they added to the cocktail. High Flavor intensity styles Spirit-Forward cocktails, Creamy Cocktails, Savory Cocktails High Flavor intensity ingredients
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Low flavor intensity
Low flavor intensity ingredients, as they relate to cocktails, are those that also contribute significant amounts of water to a cocktail. Low flavor intensity styles Light and Refreshing Cocktails Low flavor intensity ingredients include
Menu composition
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Cocktail Style/Formula
Picking a defined cocktail as noted in A Guide to Cocktail Construction helps to further conceptually narrow down the ingredients and techniques that will be used.
Low Flavor Intensity Styles
Low Flavor Intensity–Light/Refreshing
Refreshing is defined as agreeably stimulating because of freshness or newness [1]. Academic work on the topic, as noted in Labbe et al. (2009), has found that refreshing tends to be associated with foods sharing sensory characteristics with water like clear, cold, liquid [2]. Ramirez, Hampton and Du (2022) note that research has found the tastes correlated with refreshing are food or beverage dependent [3]. For example, in gel, refreshing was negatively correlated with sweetness and positively correlated with acidity [4]. However, in beer, acidity, bitter, malty, hoppy, burnt, and metallic notes are negatively associated with refreshment [5]. More recently, Hampton, Pham and Du (2023) studied refreshing perception as it correlates to beers of 0%, 2.5%, 5.0%, 7.5% ABV and flavors of citrus, cucumber and lime. They found that alcohol percentage, flavor intensity, sourness, astringency, and bitterness was negatively correlated with refreshing, whereas the perception of refreshing was positively correlated with carbonation, clean, and crisp flavors [6]. Some flavors have been positively correlated with refreshing as well. In particular, mint and peach were found by Labbe et al. (2009) to be refreshing, as well as watermelons and cucumbers by Ramirez et al. (2022).
Cocktail Styles
Julep, Highball, Collins, Sour, International Sour, Punch
Example ingredients
Refreshing is defined as agreeably stimulating because of freshness or newness [1]. Academic work on the topic, as noted in Labbe et al. (2009), has found that refreshing tends to be associated with foods sharing sensory characteristics with water like clear, cold, liquid [2]. Ramirez, Hampton and Du (2022) note that research has found the tastes correlated with refreshing are food or beverage dependent [3]. For example, in gel, refreshing was negatively correlated with sweetness and positively correlated with acidity [4]. However, in beer, acidity, bitter, malty, hoppy, burnt, and metallic notes are negatively associated with refreshment [5]. More recently, Hampton, Pham and Du (2023) studied refreshing perception as it correlates to beers of 0%, 2.5%, 5.0%, 7.5% ABV and flavors of citrus, cucumber and lime. They found that alcohol percentage, flavor intensity, sourness, astringency, and bitterness was negatively correlated with refreshing, whereas the perception of refreshing was positively correlated with carbonation, clean, and crisp flavors [6]. Some flavors have been positively correlated with refreshing as well. In particular, mint and peach were found by Labbe et al. (2009) to be refreshing, as well as watermelons and cucumbers by Ramirez et al. (2022).
Cocktail Styles
Julep, Highball, Collins, Sour, International Sour, Punch
Example ingredients
- Dilution by the addition of water (a Dilution by the addition of water (a neutral flavor) in its various forms like ice, soda, and juice makes a cocktail “open up the flavors” requiring less work to distinguish between them.
- Soda water can add dilution and enhance mouth feel.
- Fruit juices including fresh squeezed or muddled juices from citrus or berries can add both dilution and flavor.
- Fresh produce including fresh herbs can put the fresh in refreshing. They provide a refreshing feel due to their water content, and may have an emotional/psychological association with fresh produce.
- Acidity stimulates salivation. This can give the impression of hydration and also balance or mask sweetness.
High Flavor Intensity Styles
High Flavor Intensity – Spirit Forward
Alcoholic beverages on their own are spirit-forward with high intensity flavors consisting of a concentrated mix of aroma compounds. Due to the aromatic complexity of spirits, spirit-forward cocktails can also be thought of as complex.
Cocktail Styles
Martini, Duo, Old Fashioned
Example ingredients
Liqueurs, Fortified Wine, Bitters, Essential Oils, High flavor intensity ingredients.
Alcoholic beverages on their own are spirit-forward with high intensity flavors consisting of a concentrated mix of aroma compounds. Due to the aromatic complexity of spirits, spirit-forward cocktails can also be thought of as complex.
Cocktail Styles
Martini, Duo, Old Fashioned
Example ingredients
Liqueurs, Fortified Wine, Bitters, Essential Oils, High flavor intensity ingredients.
High Flavor Intensity – Creamy
Creamy cocktails are dominated by a blend of the highly flavor intense base spirit and high flavor intensity cream (high fat content). This outlier style does not fall under spirit forward, due to the lower ABV of the cocktail, though it is also not considered light and refreshing, due to the high intensity ingredients required to fight through the high fat content of the creamy ingredients.
Cocktail Styles
Flip.
Example Ingredients
Aged spirits, high fat ingredients like cream, liqueurs, aromatic bitters, other flavors extracted with ethanol such as a tincture
Creamy cocktails are dominated by a blend of the highly flavor intense base spirit and high flavor intensity cream (high fat content). This outlier style does not fall under spirit forward, due to the lower ABV of the cocktail, though it is also not considered light and refreshing, due to the high intensity ingredients required to fight through the high fat content of the creamy ingredients.
Cocktail Styles
Flip.
Example Ingredients
Aged spirits, high fat ingredients like cream, liqueurs, aromatic bitters, other flavors extracted with ethanol such as a tincture
High Flavor Intensity – Savory
Savory cocktails are highly flavor intense because tomato juice has high flavor intensity. This requires the other ingredients to be equally as bold or greater to have any influence.
Cocktail Styles
Bloodies
Example Ingredients
Tomato Juice, High acid citrus, essential oils from herbs and spices.
Savory cocktails are highly flavor intense because tomato juice has high flavor intensity. This requires the other ingredients to be equally as bold or greater to have any influence.
Cocktail Styles
Bloodies
Example Ingredients
Tomato Juice, High acid citrus, essential oils from herbs and spices.
Taste
Taste is defined as what is sensed by distinct taste receptors. That is: Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami (savory), and oleogustus (fatty). When developing a recipe, while a cocktail style generally defines taste, further defining its balance helps to refine the ingredient and proportions to be used. Traditionally, this refinement is done using taste balancing “rules” developed through historical trial and error. When the interplay between the various tastes is done well in a cocktail, it is sometimes referred to as “well balanced". However, we generally dislike the term “well balanced” as it is typically used to express: “This tastes good, but I have no idea how to describe what I’m tasting”. Rather, descriptors of the dominant taste or interplay of taste within a cocktail, like sweet-tart as is found in Sours and its derivatives, bitter-sweet as is found in Spirit-Forward cocktails, or savory as is a signature of Bloodies, are much more useful.
From a scientific perspective, while we have summarized the neurobiological explanations for the function of the different taste receptors, we have yet to find an explanation as to why some tastes modify others.
From a scientific perspective, while we have summarized the neurobiological explanations for the function of the different taste receptors, we have yet to find an explanation as to why some tastes modify others.
Sweet
Sensory mechanics [7]
Sweet taste is detected when sugars come into contact with taste buds and bind to specific receptor proteins known as T1R2 and T1R3. These receptor proteins form a heterodimer, meaning they work together as a complex. When sugars bind to the T1R2/T1R3 heterodimer, it triggers a cascade of biochemical reactions within the taste bud cells.
Sweet counteracts
Sweet enhances
Salty, exemplified in a margarita salted rim.
Example Ingredients
Agave nectar, Cocoa powder, grenadine, molasses, maple syrup, pandan syrup, sugar (white, brown, muscovado), gomme syrup, glucose syrup, stevia.
Sensory mechanics [7]
Sweet taste is detected when sugars come into contact with taste buds and bind to specific receptor proteins known as T1R2 and T1R3. These receptor proteins form a heterodimer, meaning they work together as a complex. When sugars bind to the T1R2/T1R3 heterodimer, it triggers a cascade of biochemical reactions within the taste bud cells.
Sweet counteracts
- Bitter, exemplified in its counteracting the taste of alcohol.
- Sour, exemplified in adding sugar to lemons to make lemonade.
- Spice, exemplified by spicy food paired with high residual sugar, as found in Riesling wine.
Sweet enhances
Salty, exemplified in a margarita salted rim.
Example Ingredients
Agave nectar, Cocoa powder, grenadine, molasses, maple syrup, pandan syrup, sugar (white, brown, muscovado), gomme syrup, glucose syrup, stevia.
Sour
Sensory Mechanics [8]
The detection of sour taste is closely linked to the presence of acid hydrogen ions (H+). When acidic compounds dissolve in saliva, they release hydrogen ions. These hydrogen ions activate the OTOP1 sour receptor, an ion channel that is selectively permeable to protons.
Sour balances
Sour enhances
Salty and Umami, exemplified by pickles like umeboshi (pickled plum) and cucumber pickles.
Example Ingredients
Sensory Mechanics [8]
The detection of sour taste is closely linked to the presence of acid hydrogen ions (H+). When acidic compounds dissolve in saliva, they release hydrogen ions. These hydrogen ions activate the OTOP1 sour receptor, an ion channel that is selectively permeable to protons.
Sour balances
- Spicy, exemplified in Kimchi or hot sauce which contains vinegar.
- Sweet, exemplified in sweet tarts wine.
- Bitter, exemplified in bitter greens sauteed with lemon and garlic.
Sour enhances
Salty and Umami, exemplified by pickles like umeboshi (pickled plum) and cucumber pickles.
Example Ingredients
- Citric acid from citrus juice.
- Acetic acid from vinegar.
- Malic acid from grapes, wine and cider.
- Phosphoric acid, common in soda.
- Lactic acid as found in yogurt.
- Ascorbic acid, as found in vitamin C (not to be confused with citric acid).
- All acids can also be obtained in their purified form from a molecular gastronomy retailer like the Modernist Pantry or some baking shops.
Bitter
Sensory Mechanics [9]
Bitter taste is detected through the binding of bitter compounds with TAS2Rs taste receptor proteins. This activates signaling pathways within the cells and triggers the release of intracellular messengers, such as calcium ions, which ultimately leads to the transmission of nerve impulses to the brain.
Bitter balances
Example ingredients
Coffee, unsweetened cocoa, grapefruit, hops (and beer), bitters (gentian root and cinchona bark), amaro, tonic water, tea.
Sensory Mechanics [9]
Bitter taste is detected through the binding of bitter compounds with TAS2Rs taste receptor proteins. This activates signaling pathways within the cells and triggers the release of intracellular messengers, such as calcium ions, which ultimately leads to the transmission of nerve impulses to the brain.
Bitter balances
- Sweet, exemplified in bittersweet drinks like cola and cocktails.
- Umami/Salty, exemplified in rimming a tequila glass with salt.
Example ingredients
Coffee, unsweetened cocoa, grapefruit, hops (and beer), bitters (gentian root and cinchona bark), amaro, tonic water, tea.
Umami (Savory) and Salty
While umami is the perception of savory or meaty flavors, salty is the perception of sodium chloride and other similar ionic compounds. However, their cocktail utilization is similar.
Sensory Mechanics of Salty [10]
When salt dissolves in saliva, sodium and chloride ions enter taste bud cells through specific ion channels, such as the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC). This influx of ions depolarizes the taste bud cells, leading to the generation of electrical signals.
Sensory Mechanics of Umami [11]
The detection of umami taste involves the binding of glutamate and certain nucleotides with taste receptor proteins called T1R1 and T1R3. When these molecules bind to the T1R1/T1R3 receptor complex, they initiate signaling pathways within the taste bud cells that lead to the generation of nerve impulses perceived as umami.
Salty/umami enhances
Salty/umami counteracts
Example ingredients
While umami is the perception of savory or meaty flavors, salty is the perception of sodium chloride and other similar ionic compounds. However, their cocktail utilization is similar.
Sensory Mechanics of Salty [10]
When salt dissolves in saliva, sodium and chloride ions enter taste bud cells through specific ion channels, such as the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC). This influx of ions depolarizes the taste bud cells, leading to the generation of electrical signals.
Sensory Mechanics of Umami [11]
The detection of umami taste involves the binding of glutamate and certain nucleotides with taste receptor proteins called T1R1 and T1R3. When these molecules bind to the T1R1/T1R3 receptor complex, they initiate signaling pathways within the taste bud cells that lead to the generation of nerve impulses perceived as umami.
Salty/umami enhances
- Sweetness, exemplified in salted caramel and chocolate covered pretzel.
Salty/umami counteracts
- Bitterness, exemplified in brined olives.
Example ingredients
- Salt: Saline solution, Brine, Olives, Pickles.
- Umami: Tomatoes, Dashi, Shoyu (Soy Sauce), Anchovy Paste, Bacon, Mushrooms, Onions, Cured Meats, some Cheeses. MSG is purified umami flavor.
Oleogustus/Fat
Oleogustus (oleo=fatty gustus = taste)
Oleogustus/Creamy ingredients provide taste and texture. These ingredients can create foam when shaken or enhance mouthfeel through fat-washing and by infusing minimal amounts of lipids (fats).
Sensory Mechanics [12] [13]
It is believed that taste receptors like CD36 and GPR120 detect fatty acids. Their detection triggers signaling pathways that contribute to the perception of oleogustus. Its presence as a taste was difficult to isolate due to oleogustus also being involved in texture and fatty acids with aromatic properties. Creamy cocktails, for example, are partially driven by the balance between oleogustus and sweet.
Oleogustus enhances
Oleogustus counteracts
Example ingredients
Cream, fat (used in fat washing), oil.
For more insight into oleogustus
Running, C. A., Craig, B. A., & Mattes, R. D. (2015). Oleogustus: the unique taste of fat. Chemical senses, 40(7), 507-516.
https://academic.oup.com/chemse/article/40/7/507/400784
Besnard, P., Passilly-Degrace, P., & Khan, N. A. (2016). Taste of fat: a sixth taste modality?. Physiological reviews, 96(1), 151-176. https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00002.2015
Oleogustus (oleo=fatty gustus = taste)
Oleogustus/Creamy ingredients provide taste and texture. These ingredients can create foam when shaken or enhance mouthfeel through fat-washing and by infusing minimal amounts of lipids (fats).
Sensory Mechanics [12] [13]
It is believed that taste receptors like CD36 and GPR120 detect fatty acids. Their detection triggers signaling pathways that contribute to the perception of oleogustus. Its presence as a taste was difficult to isolate due to oleogustus also being involved in texture and fatty acids with aromatic properties. Creamy cocktails, for example, are partially driven by the balance between oleogustus and sweet.
Oleogustus enhances
- Sweetness, exemplified by ice cream and other sweet desserts.
- Umami, exemplified by well-marbled steak.
Oleogustus counteracts
- Bitterness, exemplified by the addition of creamer to coffee.
- Acidity, exemplified by the mixing of oil and vinegar in dressing.
Example ingredients
Cream, fat (used in fat washing), oil.
For more insight into oleogustus
Running, C. A., Craig, B. A., & Mattes, R. D. (2015). Oleogustus: the unique taste of fat. Chemical senses, 40(7), 507-516.
https://academic.oup.com/chemse/article/40/7/507/400784
Besnard, P., Passilly-Degrace, P., & Khan, N. A. (2016). Taste of fat: a sixth taste modality?. Physiological reviews, 96(1), 151-176. https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00002.2015
Chemesthesis
Unlike taste, which is detected by taste receptors, chemesthesis is the chemical activation of sensory receptors on specialized nerve endings. These sensory receptors are not specific to taste or odor, and are also involved in other sensory perceptions like heat, cold, pain, tingling, and irritation even though there is no physical change. In cocktails, chemesthesis can be utilized to create different sensations and enhance the experience
Spicy
Sensation: Heat
Sensory Mechanics [14]
Active compounds like capsaicin (from chili peppers), piperine (from black peppers), and gingerol (from ginger) bind to and stimulate “transient receptor potential vanilloid 1” (TRPV1) cation channels that are primarily located in sensory nerve endings. TRPV1 receptors are involved in the perception of temperature and pain. Their activation triggers the release of neurotransmitters that send signals to the brain, conveying the perception of heat or pain.
Spicy balances
Example Ingredients: Wasabi, horseradish, fresh ginger, chili peppers, hot sauces
Sensation: Heat
Sensory Mechanics [14]
Active compounds like capsaicin (from chili peppers), piperine (from black peppers), and gingerol (from ginger) bind to and stimulate “transient receptor potential vanilloid 1” (TRPV1) cation channels that are primarily located in sensory nerve endings. TRPV1 receptors are involved in the perception of temperature and pain. Their activation triggers the release of neurotransmitters that send signals to the brain, conveying the perception of heat or pain.
Spicy balances
- Sweet, exemplified in the pairing of Riesling wine and spicy Thai food.
- Sour, exemplified in the pairing of pineapple and chili pepper.
Example Ingredients: Wasabi, horseradish, fresh ginger, chili peppers, hot sauces
Cooling/Menthol
Sensation: Cooling
Sensory Mechanics [15]: Menthol activates the TRPM8 cold receptors. These receptors are also involved in the perception of low temperatures. This activation leads to conformational changes and subsequent opening of the channel, thereby allowing ions, particularly calcium and sodium, to flow into the sensory nerve endings. This generates electrical signals that are then transmitted to the brain and interpreted as a cooling sensation.
Example Ingredients: Mint
Sensation: Cooling
Sensory Mechanics [15]: Menthol activates the TRPM8 cold receptors. These receptors are also involved in the perception of low temperatures. This activation leads to conformational changes and subsequent opening of the channel, thereby allowing ions, particularly calcium and sodium, to flow into the sensory nerve endings. This generates electrical signals that are then transmitted to the brain and interpreted as a cooling sensation.
Example Ingredients: Mint
Carbon Dioxide
Sensation: Tingling or stinging. (This is different than the actual physical feeling of bubbles)
Sensory Mechanics [16]
CO2 is converted to carbonic acid by the carbonic anhydrase enzyme found in mouth tissue (this enzyme is also found throughout the body and helps to regulate blood pH). The tingle of the painful aspect of carbonation is acidification of tissue and receptors on trigeminal nerve endings in the oral cavity. It is believed that the particular acid-sensing receptors are those from the TRPA1 (Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin 1) channels and others from the transient receptor potential (TRP) family..
Example Ingredients: Soda
For more insight into Carbon Dioxide
Wise, P. M., Wolf, M., Thom, S. R., & Bryant, B. (2013). The influence of bubbles on the perception carbonation bite. PLoS One, 8(8), e71488. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071488
Sensation: Tingling or stinging. (This is different than the actual physical feeling of bubbles)
Sensory Mechanics [16]
CO2 is converted to carbonic acid by the carbonic anhydrase enzyme found in mouth tissue (this enzyme is also found throughout the body and helps to regulate blood pH). The tingle of the painful aspect of carbonation is acidification of tissue and receptors on trigeminal nerve endings in the oral cavity. It is believed that the particular acid-sensing receptors are those from the TRPA1 (Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin 1) channels and others from the transient receptor potential (TRP) family..
Example Ingredients: Soda
For more insight into Carbon Dioxide
Wise, P. M., Wolf, M., Thom, S. R., & Bryant, B. (2013). The influence of bubbles on the perception carbonation bite. PLoS One, 8(8), e71488. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071488
Mouthfeel
Mouthfeel is the physical parameters of food, including texture and temperature
Texture
Unlike the diversity of textures in food, beverages textures are limited to variations on residual granular solids from ice or pulp, variations in viscosity, and variations in entrapped air.
Residual solids
Solids can be caused by ice or from other ingredients like pulp. For example:
Entrapped air
Viscosity
Beyond a change in mouthfeel, viscosity can influence the finish of a cocktail by extending it.
Unlike the diversity of textures in food, beverages textures are limited to variations on residual granular solids from ice or pulp, variations in viscosity, and variations in entrapped air.
Residual solids
Solids can be caused by ice or from other ingredients like pulp. For example:
- Slushy: Created by blending ice into the cocktail.
- Icy: Created by crushing ice a Lewis Bag with a mallet.
- Pulpy: Created by utilizing pulpy fruit puree or leaving in fresh muddled herbs as is common in cocktails like a mojito.
- Granular: Created by rimming a glass with sugar or salt.
- Clarification techniques like depth filtration using a cellulose/coffee filter, protein clarification using egg white or milk, and gel clarification using gelatin or kanten (agar-agar) can be used to modify residual solid content.
Entrapped air
- Effervescent/Bubbly: Created by the addition of a carbonated beverage like soda water.
- Frothy: This specific type of aerated viscosity is created by the entrapment of air by various means including the utilization of an emulsifier or an ingredient with a protein structure that can support lots of air. Egg whites are commonly used in fresh or powdered form and can be added to sour mix and combined by shaking with the cocktail ingredients.
Viscosity
Beyond a change in mouthfeel, viscosity can influence the finish of a cocktail by extending it.
- Low viscosity: Chilling a drink without dilution to coagulate dissolved lipids and sugars.
- Medium viscosity: Created by the addition of a viscous liquid like a syrup (simple syrup, agave nectar, honey syrup).
- High viscosity: Can be created by the addition of fats or proteins. Then, depending on the technique of integration (stirring or shaking), the beverage can become frothy by the addition of air through shaking, or remain clear and viscous by stirring.
Astringency
Astringency, as it pertains to cocktails, is more likely to be caused by the alcohol content of a cocktail, which causes tissue shrinkage due to the abstraction of water from the tissue. This can also be caused by various polyphenols binding to salivary proteins as discussed in A Guide to Wine Polyphenols (hawaiibevguide.com/wine-polyphenols.html). For wine tannins, different tannin descriptors for wine like grippy, plush, and silky are explained in a good summary by Master of Wine Jacky Blisson (jackyblisson.com/wine-tannin-glossary.
Astringent can be balanced by
Example astringent ingredients
Red wine, oak, green or black tea, pomegranate, juniper.
Astringency, as it pertains to cocktails, is more likely to be caused by the alcohol content of a cocktail, which causes tissue shrinkage due to the abstraction of water from the tissue. This can also be caused by various polyphenols binding to salivary proteins as discussed in A Guide to Wine Polyphenols (hawaiibevguide.com/wine-polyphenols.html). For wine tannins, different tannin descriptors for wine like grippy, plush, and silky are explained in a good summary by Master of Wine Jacky Blisson (jackyblisson.com/wine-tannin-glossary.
Astringent can be balanced by
- Dilution, exemplified by the addition of ice or water to a spirit.
- Sweet, exemplified by the addition of sugar to a spirit to form a cocktail
Example astringent ingredients
Red wine, oak, green or black tea, pomegranate, juniper.
Temperature
The feel and taste of a beverage is influenced by temperature.
Mechanics of temperature
While the following mechanisms are influential on taste and aroma, studies on temperature are based upon consumer preference of a particular beverage rather than finding an ideal temperature based upon neuroscience and physics.
Cocktail temperature
The general temperature concepts are cold/chilled and warm, with few beverages being served at room temperature. An exception to this is neat distilled spirits. Given that the focus of this article on cocktail development, and that cocktails are primarily chilled, a useful, frequently cited study on the serving temperature of white wine by Ross and Weller (2008), helps to better understand the concept. The study found that increasing wine from 4-18°C (39-64°F) increased aromatic intensity, especially in white wines. However, no changes in sweetness, acidity, or astringency were found by increasing temperature. Oenologist Dr. Carien Coetzee, in a blog post about serving temperature on Sauvignon Blanc South Africa’s website, suggests that these findings indicate that ideal temperatures are a matter of personal preference, and that “bad wines can become almost palatable when served ice cold” [17].
The feel and taste of a beverage is influenced by temperature.
Mechanics of temperature
While the following mechanisms are influential on taste and aroma, studies on temperature are based upon consumer preference of a particular beverage rather than finding an ideal temperature based upon neuroscience and physics.
- Sensory mechanics: Thermoreceptors, sensitive to both cold and hot sensations, are part of the transient receptor potential (TRP) ion channel family, including TRPM8 for cold and TRPV1 for heat. Hot or cold temperatures stimulate the receptor causing it to open and allow the influx of ions, particularly calcium and sodium, into the sensory nerve endings. This triggers the generation of nerve impulses that are transmitted to the brain, resulting in the perception of warmth or hotness.
- Physics of volatile aroma compounds: Temperature by definition is the kinetic energy of a molecule. The more kinetic energy, the more likely it is to volatilize out of solution. This, in theory, results in more perceived aroma. To our knowledge, there have been no studies on the maximum distinguishable quantity of volatilized aroma per aroma compound.
Cocktail temperature
The general temperature concepts are cold/chilled and warm, with few beverages being served at room temperature. An exception to this is neat distilled spirits. Given that the focus of this article on cocktail development, and that cocktails are primarily chilled, a useful, frequently cited study on the serving temperature of white wine by Ross and Weller (2008), helps to better understand the concept. The study found that increasing wine from 4-18°C (39-64°F) increased aromatic intensity, especially in white wines. However, no changes in sweetness, acidity, or astringency were found by increasing temperature. Oenologist Dr. Carien Coetzee, in a blog post about serving temperature on Sauvignon Blanc South Africa’s website, suggests that these findings indicate that ideal temperatures are a matter of personal preference, and that “bad wines can become almost palatable when served ice cold” [17].
- Beer: Service guidelines generally trend with SRM 45-50°F service temperatures for beer styles using lighter color malts (maximum SRM of 10 and below) and 50-55 °F for darker malt beers (maximum SRM of 12 and above). Serving temperature recommendations per beer style can be found at https://www.hawaiibevguide.com/beer.html
- Wine: Suggestions from Ronald Jackson in Wine Science [18] and Master of Wine Jancis Robinson [19] are noted in the following table.
Aroma
Aroma is sensed via olfaction and retronasal olfaction, and is where the large diversity and nuance of flavor comes from. Typically, aroma combinations are memorized combinations of ingredients that “work,” as is exemplified by The Flavor Bible by Karen Page and Andrew Dornenburg. However, why these ingredient combinations “work” has been the topic of increased discussion and academic research, because understanding and articulating why ingredients pair together is a useful teaching tool and increased opportunities for creativity.
Technology has helped to transform our understanding of food science. As noted in many of our articles, gas chromatography and mass spectrometry is used to chemically analyze ingredients and beverages to understand what aroma compounds create its flavor. More recently, this research has been combined with statistical analysis to better understand relationships between ingredients. For example, a frequently cited study by Ahn et al. (2011) used data from the recipe repositories epicurious.com, allrecipes.com, and menupan.com (from Korea) to develop a statistical relationship between ingredients deemed “the flavor network” [20]. This work was then further expanded by Simas et al. (2017) in a study in which mathematical techniques were applied to several regional cuisines. This resulted in the encoding of a relationship between the flavor network and regional styles of food into the concept of “food-bridging [21]
Technology has helped to transform our understanding of food science. As noted in many of our articles, gas chromatography and mass spectrometry is used to chemically analyze ingredients and beverages to understand what aroma compounds create its flavor. More recently, this research has been combined with statistical analysis to better understand relationships between ingredients. For example, a frequently cited study by Ahn et al. (2011) used data from the recipe repositories epicurious.com, allrecipes.com, and menupan.com (from Korea) to develop a statistical relationship between ingredients deemed “the flavor network” [20]. This work was then further expanded by Simas et al. (2017) in a study in which mathematical techniques were applied to several regional cuisines. This resulted in the encoding of a relationship between the flavor network and regional styles of food into the concept of “food-bridging [21]
Aromatic Compound Combinations
Food-pairing Cuisines
High food-pairing + low food-bridging.
Concept
Flavors are intensified by mixing ingredients with similar chemical compounds. The concept was popularized by Francois Benzi and Heston Blumenthal, and statistically proven by Ahn et al. (2011).
Cuisine types
Western cuisines which subcluster into a group consisting of Southern European cuisine and North American cuisine and a group consisting of Western and Eastern European cuisines where:
High food-pairing + low food-bridging.
Concept
Flavors are intensified by mixing ingredients with similar chemical compounds. The concept was popularized by Francois Benzi and Heston Blumenthal, and statistically proven by Ahn et al. (2011).
Cuisine types
Western cuisines which subcluster into a group consisting of Southern European cuisine and North American cuisine and a group consisting of Western and Eastern European cuisines where:
- Southern European cuisines like Greek, Italian, Mediterranean, Spanish, and Portuguese cuisine.
- North American cuisine like American, Canadian, Cajun, Southern soul food, and Southwestern U.S cuisine.
- Eastern European cuisines like those from Eastern Europe in general, as well as Russian cuisine.
- Western European cuisine like French, Austrian, Belgian, English, Scottish, Dutch, Swiss, German, and Irish cuisine.
Food-bridging Cuisines
Low food-pairing + high food-bridging.
Concept
Two ingredients that do not share a strong molecular or empirical affinity are bridged through another ingredient or a path of non-repeating ingredients within a network of ingredient affinities. Simas et al. (2017) provide the following example which links garlic and strawberry (these only share 5 aroma compounds which were not specified in the text):
Cuisine types
Southeastern Asian cuisines including: Indonesian, Malaysian, Filipino, Thai, and Vietnamese. These cuisines start with a similar approach to East Asian cuisines, but include other ingredients that emphasize bridging contrasting flavors.
Low food-pairing + high food-bridging.
Concept
Two ingredients that do not share a strong molecular or empirical affinity are bridged through another ingredient or a path of non-repeating ingredients within a network of ingredient affinities. Simas et al. (2017) provide the following example which links garlic and strawberry (these only share 5 aroma compounds which were not specified in the text):
- Strawberry + Garlic: Share five aroma compounds.
- Garlic + Roasted Onion + Bantu Beer + Strawberry: Share 136 flavors. This understanding may inspire a “garlic-strawberry” sauce, based on “garlic + roasted onion + bantu beer + strawberry,”
- Garlic + roasted beef + strawberry: Share 74 flavors. This understanding may inspire the dish composed of “roasted beef” with garlic-strawberry sauce.
Cuisine types
Southeastern Asian cuisines including: Indonesian, Malaysian, Filipino, Thai, and Vietnamese. These cuisines start with a similar approach to East Asian cuisines, but include other ingredients that emphasize bridging contrasting flavors.
Avoidance of food-bridging and food-pairing
Low food-pairing + low food-bridging
Concept
Ingredients contrast each other in respect to flavor.
Cuisine types
East Asian cuisines like Korean, Chinese, and Japanese cuisines.
Low food-pairing + low food-bridging
Concept
Ingredients contrast each other in respect to flavor.
Cuisine types
East Asian cuisines like Korean, Chinese, and Japanese cuisines.
Food-bridging AND food-pairing Cuisines
High food-pairing + high food-bridging.
Concept
These dishes tend to reinforce the intensity of flavor using both food-pairing and food-bridging. This creates both a direct and indirect intensification of flavors in a recipe, by reinforcing common flavors and smoothing contrasts between flavored contrasted ingredients.
Cuisine types
Latin American cuisines like Caribbean, Central America, South American, and Mexican cuisines.
High food-pairing + high food-bridging.
Concept
These dishes tend to reinforce the intensity of flavor using both food-pairing and food-bridging. This creates both a direct and indirect intensification of flavors in a recipe, by reinforcing common flavors and smoothing contrasts between flavored contrasted ingredients.
Cuisine types
Latin American cuisines like Caribbean, Central America, South American, and Mexican cuisines.
Practical Implications
Ahn et al. (2011) note the food-pairing (or avoidance of food-pairing) effect is due to a few outliers that are frequently used in a particular cuisine. This means that in cocktails, flavor combinations that are commonly found in cuisine as seen in sauces or seasonings can be referenced to provide that cuisine’s particular feel. The ingredients found were:
In a recent work by Sony Corporation’s ’Artificial Intelligence group a development of a food recommended pairing concept was developed. For more insight:
Park, D., Kim, K., Kim, S., Spranger, M., & Kang, J. (2021). FlavorGraph: a large-scale food-chemical graph for generating food representations and recommending food pairings. Scientific reports, 11(1), 1-13. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-79422-8
Ahn et al. (2011) note the food-pairing (or avoidance of food-pairing) effect is due to a few outliers that are frequently used in a particular cuisine. This means that in cocktails, flavor combinations that are commonly found in cuisine as seen in sauces or seasonings can be referenced to provide that cuisine’s particular feel. The ingredients found were:
- North American cuisine: Milk, butter, cocoa, vanilla, cream, and egg with a general heavy reliance on dairy products, eggs and wheat.
- East Asian: East Asian cuisine is dominated by plant derivatives like soy sauce, scallion, sesame oil, rice, soybean and ginger.
- Southern European: Parmesan, basil, onion, tomato, garlic, olive oil, macaroni.
- Latin American: Corn, onion, tomato, garlic cayenne.
In a recent work by Sony Corporation’s ’Artificial Intelligence group a development of a food recommended pairing concept was developed. For more insight:
Park, D., Kim, K., Kim, S., Spranger, M., & Kang, J. (2021). FlavorGraph: a large-scale food-chemical graph for generating food representations and recommending food pairings. Scientific reports, 11(1), 1-13. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-79422-8
Other studies that have taken a statistical approach include
Varshney, K. R., Varshney, L. R., Wang, J., and Myers, D. (2013). Flavor pairing in medieval European cuisine: a study in cooking with dirty data. arXiv:1307.7982 [physics.soc-ph]. Available at: arxiv.org/abs/1307.7982
Jain, A., Rakhi, N. K., and Bagler, G. (2015). Analysis of food pairing in regional cuisines of India. PLoS ONE 10:e0139539.
doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0139539
Kim, S., Sung, J., Foo, M., Jin, Y.-S., and Kim, P.-J. (2015). Uncovering the nutritional landscape of food. PLoS ONE 10:e0118697. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118697
Future Hawaii Beverage Guide articles on aroma will include:
Varshney, K. R., Varshney, L. R., Wang, J., and Myers, D. (2013). Flavor pairing in medieval European cuisine: a study in cooking with dirty data. arXiv:1307.7982 [physics.soc-ph]. Available at: arxiv.org/abs/1307.7982
Jain, A., Rakhi, N. K., and Bagler, G. (2015). Analysis of food pairing in regional cuisines of India. PLoS ONE 10:e0139539.
doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0139539
Kim, S., Sung, J., Foo, M., Jin, Y.-S., and Kim, P.-J. (2015). Uncovering the nutritional landscape of food. PLoS ONE 10:e0118697. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118697
Future Hawaii Beverage Guide articles on aroma will include:
- A series of articles highlighting common aroma compounds used in cocktails. This starts with the article Herb Aroma Compounds. It should also be noted that the Volatile Compounds in Food (VCF) database (https://www.vcf-online.nl) used in Ahn et al. (2011) costs €1485/year.
- An article on how people sense flavor. This will highlight the recent neuroscience on the topic.
- An article of how to think about analytically highlighting or structuring a menu by using the aroma wheel from the perfume/fragrance world. For more insight: Zarzo M. Understanding the Perceptual Spectrum of Commercial Perfumes as a Basis for a Standard Sensory Wheel of Fragrances. Cosmetics. 2020; 7(1):3. doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics7010003
Resources and Suggested Reading
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1.Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Refreshing. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved June 23, 2023, from merriam-webster.com/dictionary/refreshing
2.Labbe, D., Almiron-Roig, E., Hudry, J., Leathwood, P., Schifferstein, H. N. J., & Martin, N. (2009). Sensory basis of refreshing perception: Role of psychophysiological factors and food experience. Physiology & Behavior, 98(1-2), 1-9. Retrieved from: academia.edu/82204877/Sensory_basis_of_refreshing_perception_Role_of_psychophysiological_factors_and_food_experience 3.Ramirez, J. L., Hampton, A., & Du, X. (2022). Examining the consumer view of refreshing perception, relevant fruits, vegetables, soft drinks, and beers, and consumer age and gender segmentations. Food Science & Nutrition, 10(8), 2516-2531. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.2857 4.Labbe, D., Gilbert, F., Antille, N., & Martin, N. (2009). Sensory determinants of refreshing. Food Quality and Preference, 20(2), 100-109. doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2007.09.001 5.Guinard, J. X., Souchard, A., Picot, M., Rogeaux, M., & Sieffermann, J. M. (1998). Determinants of the thirst-quenching character of beer. Appetite, 31(1), 101-115. https://doi.org/10.1006/appe.1998.0165 6.Hampton, A., Pham, T., & Du, X. (2023). Impact of Flavor Factorized by Alcohol Level and Flavor Type on ‘Beer Refreshing Perception’in a Model Study and the Exploration of Sensory Drivers for ‘Refreshing’. Journal of the American Society of Brewing Chemists, 1-14. doi.org/10.1080/03610470.2023.2193792 7.Roper, S. D., & Chaudhari, N. (2017). Taste buds: cells, signals and synapses. Nature reviews. Neuroscience, 18(8), 485–497. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2017.68 8.Liman, E. R., & Kinnamon, S. C. (2021). Sour taste: receptors, cells and circuits. Current opinion in physiology, 20, 8–15. doi.org/10.1016/j.cophys.2020.12.006 9.Neuroscience Online. (n.d.). Taste. Michigan State University.https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/taste/ 10.ScienceDaily. (2016, February 11). New study shows how complex metabolism may have self-assembled from simple precursors. ScienceDaily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/02/160211142756.htm |
11.Li, X., Staszewski, L., Xu, H., Durick, K., Zoller, M., & Adler, E. (2002). Human receptors for sweet and umami taste. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99(7), 4692–4696. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.072090199
12.Running, C. A., Craig, B. A., & Mattes, R. D. (2015). Oleogustus: the unique taste of fat. Chemical senses, 40(7), 507-516. academic.oup.com/chemse/article/40/7/507/400784 13.Besnard, P., Passilly-Degrace, P., & Khan, N. A. (2016). Taste of fat: a sixth taste modality?. Physiological reviews, 96(1), 151-176. https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00002.2015 14.Kapaun, C. L., & Dando, R. (2017). Deconvoluting physical and chemical heat: Temperature and spiciness influence flavor differently. Physiology & behavior, 170, 54-61. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031938416305935 15.Bautista, D., Siemens, J., Glazer, J. et al. The menthol receptor TRPM8 is the principal detector of environmental cold. Nature 448, 204–208 (2007). Retrieved from: http://perso.univ-rennes1.fr/francois.tiaho/L3-physio.%20G-tiaho/Bibliographie/thermorecepteurs/2007-Bautista%20et%20al%20_TRPM8.pdf 16.Wise, P. M., Wolf, M., Thom, S. R., & Bryant, B. (2013). The influence of bubbles on the perception carbonation bite. PLoS One, 8(8), e71488. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071488 17.Coetzee, C. (2022, July 27). Serving temperature. Sauvignon Blanc South Africa. Retrieved June 26, 2023, from sauvignonblanc.com/serving-temperature/ 18.Jackson, R. S. (2020). Wine Science: Principles and Applications (5th ed.). Elsevier Science. 19.Robinson, J. (n.d.). How to serve wine | JancisRobinson.com. Jancis Robinson. Retrieved June 26, 2023, from http://jancisrobinson.com/learn/drinking-wine/how-to-serve-wine 20.Ahn, YY., Ahnert, S., Bagrow, J. et al. Flavor network and the principles of food pairing. Sci Rep 1, 196 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep00196 21.Simas T, Ficek M, Diaz-Guilera A, Obrador P and Rodriguez PR (2017) Food-Bridging: A New Network Construction to Unveil the Principles of Cooking. Front. ICT 4:14. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fict.2017.00014/full#B3 |