Rum Styles

  • Styles of Rum
  • Not Styles of Rum
  • Confusing style of Rum
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Rum Styles
The best way to classify rum is first by raw material, then by distillation technique, then by age.

Molasses
  • • Pot still
  • • Column still
  • • *High Ester Rum
Ester count in parts per million is away to quantify the number of ester flavor molecules in rum. In Jamaica, this sub-style of rum is known for its “funk.”

Cane Syrup
  • Pot still
  • Column still

Fresh Pressed Sugarcane
  • Pot still
  • Column still

Flavored rums
  • Spiced rum
  • Other flavors
Not Rum Styles
Gold rum and dark rum are more loose descriptors of rum colors than they are styles. Gold and dark rum can either be made by using aged products, adding caramel color, or a blend of the two methods. Naturally, this results in products with different flavor profiles. Many brands perpetuate these categories, because coloring white rum is cheaper than aging rum, and because the consumer is accustomed to these as “categories.'' However, from an analytical perspective, a category is only useful if it classifies similar items, not items that may look alike but are completely different. In a conversation with David Cid, Master of Rum at Bacardi, he pointed out that Bacardi Gold is actually short for Bacardi Gold Label and “gold” refers to the color of the label, not the color of the rum.
Confusing Rum Styles
Though it is common to talk about regional variation in terms of English (typically pot or pot/column still rum made from molasses) vs. Spanish style rum (column still rum made from molasses), it maybe more confusing than helpful. Though true in some circumstances, former Spanish colonies do not always make Spanish style rum, and former English colonies do not always make English style rum. It should be noted that some rum purists do not consider rum made from raw sugar or sugar syrup (instead of molasses) rum, but colloquially it is classified as rum, as there has yet to be a better defining term.

Rum History

By: Daniela Parker
From Martha Washington to King Kamehameha I; from Brazilian slaves to pirates, the production and distillation of either sugarcane or molasses to make rum has had a profound impact on world history. The production and transportation of rum has influenced
trade routes and slavery, and jump started economies. “The first firm documentation [of rum] is a 1552 report from Governor Tomé de Sousa of Bahia in the Portuguese colony of Brazil, which mentions that the slaves on the sugar plantations were more passive and willing to work if allowed to drink ‘cachaco’”(Foss 25). Nearly 100 years later in 1647, (before the first mention anywhere else of a beverage distilled from sugar) the Portuguese government decreed that only slaves and residents of Pernambuco, at that time a Dutch colony, were allowed to drink cachaça. Surprisingly, there are no conclusive records of rum distillation in either the Spanish or the French Caribbean from this era; however, both colonial powers had sugar plantations and slaves, as well as knowledge of distilling, so it seems unlikely that only the Portuguese would have been making rum. Rum’s usage as a word has multiple variations due to its allusion to violence (Foss 28). The first commonly cited usage of “rum” was first recorded a 1651 report from a visitor to the British colony of Barbados: “The chief fuddling they make in the island is Rumbullion, alias Kil-Divil, and this is made of sugar canes distilled, a hot, hellish, and terrible liquor.” (Foss 28). This mention is also used by historians as the date of the invention of the liquor distilled from sugar. Additionally, rum has been used as a prefix in words like ‘Rum-gagger’, a term used for a conman who told suffering people at sea to obtain money for drinks, and a nautical term that is still used today: ‘rummage’. This was name for intrusive searches by customs officials looking for smuggled barrels.” (Foss 59-60)
 Rum had a historical role as currency throughout the 1600 and 1700’s. “Since rum functioned as a de facto currency, traded by ships sailing long distances through poorly charted waters, it was natural that pirates and privateers became interested in hijacking
their cargoes. Ships loaded with rum might be less likely to put up a strong resistance, because, in a hot Caribbean climate, with many barrels of evaporating alcohol in an enclosed space, any spark in the hold could lead to an explosion.“ (Foss 57) Before Prohibition’s repeal officially took effect, Sloppy Joe’s in Key West, Florida, became famous for its mojitos. At that time, a person might find Ernest Hemingway sitting at Sloppy Joe’s, sipping on his favorite drink. In Los Angeles, a bartender named Ernest Gantt invented a drink called the Zombie and opened a bar called Don the Beachcomber, the first Polynesian-themed tiki bar. Gantt’s concept met with such success that he eventually changed his name to Donn Beach, and entertained star-studded clientele, including Charlie Chaplin and Howard Hughes. Vic Bergeron, another entrepreneurial spirit, capitalized on the success of the tiki bar by starting his own restaurant, Trader Vic’s, and creating his own rum drink, the Mai Tai, which comes from the Tahitian word for “good”. Rum has shaped the world: from the civic structure of many Caribbean countries to piracy to tiki bars. Whether clear, golden or black, sugar and a distiller are all that is needed to create this complex drink.


For a great book on rum history read: Foss, Richard. Rum: A Global History. Reakition Books Ltd, 2012.

Fermentables

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Molasses at Tanduay
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Sugarcane crusher at Ko Hana Rum

Molasses

  • Sugar Harvest Technique
  • ​Molasses Production and Types
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Molasses [1]
Ideal Brix: 87.6° Bx (theoretical yield of ~40% ethanol w/w). Molasses with <85.4°Bx provides inadequate energy for growth and >88.2°Bx inhibits yeast growth. Molasses is an agricultural product, and a byproduct of the sugar manufacturing process. Its flavor varies, based upon its manufacturer, and is dependent on how it is made, as well as the growing conditions and the harvesting methods of the sugarcane that it was made from.

Sugar Harvest Technique
The approach to harvesting cane will influence the flavor of the molasses, and the final rum. The styles of sugarcane harvest are:
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  • Burn Harvesting, which involves burning off the unnecessary vegetative material (leaves) of the cane so that only the sugar-containing stalks remain, also acting to rid the field of potentially hazardous animals like snakes and spiders. Though this was the traditional method of harvesting sugarcane, it can leave unwanted smoke residue. However, most of the smoke residue is removed through the molasses production process.
  • Green Harvesting refers to the process of not burning the cane before harvesting.  The process has become mainstream due to technological advancements which allow for the mechanized harvesting of cane. A canefield can be mechanically harvested after being burned, however. Green harvesting is now the preferred method of harvesting cane by the sugar industry because it can be more cost effective, produces a cleaner sugar, and is more environmentally friendly.

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​Sugar and Molasses Production [2]
After the sugar is harvested, it is crushed to extract the juice. It is then boiled three times to reduce the water content and extract the sugar. Each boiling results in a particular grade of molasses. Generally, the lower the grade of molasses, the more refined
the molasses needs to be in order to get rid of any unwanted flavors from the multiple boiling's.

Grade A Molasses
  • Sucrose Content: 63.5% total sugar
  • Process: The liquid is reduced by boiling out the water until it reaches a desired viscosity. The sugar crystals are separated, leaving the First molasses, also known as Grade A molasses.

Grade B Molasses
  • Sucrose: 61.5% total sugar
  • Process: The concentrated sugar from the first boil is reboiled. This results in the second molasses.

Grade C “Blackstrap molasses”
  • Sucrose: 58% sugar
  • Process: The Final boiling produces the crystallization-based extraction of the second molasses.
  • Typical usages flavors: Blackstrap molasses has a slightly bitter taste compared to the First and second molasses.

Refinery molasses is created by processing raw sugar into white sugar. This releases the molasses originally bound to the raw sugar crystals. Some rum producers may also blend refinery-grade molasses with their blackstrap stocks.

Sugar Growing variables, including soil moisture tension, predominantly affect the Brix degrees and sucrose content of molasses.

Fresh Pressed Sugarcane and Sugarcane Syrup

  • Fresh Pressed Sugarcane Juice
  • Sugarcane Syrup or Turbinado Sugar ​
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Fresh Pressed Sugarcane Juice

Production
Once the sugarcane is cut, it should be pressed within 24 hours for optimal flavor. Once pressed, the juice is strained to remove any solids.

Ideal Sugarcane Juice
  • Brix: 14° - 16° Bx.
  • pH of 5.0 to 6.0. For optimal yeast propagation, the pH needs to be lowered to 4.5 before fermentation.
Notes about fresh pressed sugarcane juice
  • Fresh pressed sugarcane juice is difficult to work with, because there is a small window between pressing and fermentation before the sugarcane juice produces off-flavors due to the rapid accumulation of yeast that starts the fermentation.
  • If fresh pressed sugarcane is used, then the varietal of sugarcane can be expressed in the final product. There are distillers that produce single varietal expressions.
  • If fresh pressed sugarcane is used, wild/spontaneous fermentations are not typically used, due to the inconsistent nature of the resulting fermentation.
Sugarcane Syrup or Turbinado Sugar or “Raw Sugar”
  • Sugarcane juice is pressed, then heated to reduce the water content. This dehydration process extends the shelf life of the sugar cane, yet preserves the high sucrose content of sugarcane.
  • Raw sugar is similar to sugarcane syrup, but differs in that it has all the water eliminated from the sugarcane juice.

Rum Microbes

  • Yeast and Bacteria
  • Dunder
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Yeast Notes
pH has a major influence on the type of yeast that develop in the wash and the resulting rum flavor profile.

​Saccharomyces cerevisiae, when used in exclusion of other types of yeast, produces lighter rums due to faster fermenting. [5] [6] Additionally, S. cerevisiae thrives in weaker acid environments (acidity of under 0.5%) like in cane juice washes and fresh skimmings.

Schizosaccharomyces pombe thrives (and S. cerivese is suppressed) in higher acid environments including being the only yeast found in washes with 1.0% acidity. This high acid environment can be produced by the inclusion of acetic elements like dunder, molasses, acid skimmings, and the frequently specially added acid, known as ‘flavour,’ made in a muck pit or trash cistern. However, S. pombe does not directly produce flavor compounds but rather makes fermentations with an elevated acid environment occur more slowly, which allows for the development of rums with higher contents of esters, higher alcohols, organic acids and aldehyde. These combine to contribute stronger organoleptic tastes and aromas to the rum. 

Kluyveromyces marxianus, Pichia heimii and Hanseniaspora uvarum were present only at the beginning, Pichia subpelliculosa and Debaryomyces hansenii were detected from the middle to the end of fermentation, and Pichia methanolica appeared briefly after the cessation of fermentation. For more on rum (from molasses) yeast, read: rumdiariesblog.wordpress.com/2021/02/15/yeast-in-rum-or-s-pombe-revisited/
Dunder 
Given that each distillery has different production processes and methodologies, dunder composition will vary.

Dunder is the stillage/residual liquid with a pH between 4.3 and 4.9, which remains after distillation. This material is sometimes added directly back into the fermentation process along with molasses, stored in pits where it is used as feed for animals or as a fertilizer, or combined with other sugarcane materials to create “muck”. If used as dunder and not muck, its inclusion in rum-making helps to recycle available fresh water, reduce distillery waste, reduce disposal costs, provide acidity required to lower molasses pH, and provide a source of wild yeasts and bacteria for the next molasses fermentation. Additionally, the primary bacterial fermentation strains in rum: Lactobacillus plantarum, L. fermentum, L. spp. (multiple unidentified species of Lactobacillus) grew best when no dunder was added to the fermentation medium. However Lactobacillus spp., grew in approximately the same quantities of dunder. This suggests the presence of some substances in dunder that are inhibitory to L. plantarum and L. fermentum growth. Additionally, dunder decreased the growth of the yeast at concentrations above 10% .

Composition of Dunder
Dunder is heated during distillation, making it devoid of living organisms when it comes out of the still. However, it does contain a slurry of dead yeast, dead bacteria and heat-resistant Lactobacillus strains, including Lactobacillus acidophilus, which appeared reactivated after a couple of days of storage in a sterile environment.

Organic Acids
The primary organic acids in both “fresh” and stored dunder occur at similar levels. They are: succinic, butyric and propionic. Additionally, stored dunder gave higher concentrations of lactic and acetic acids compared with the fresh dunder. This means stored dunder creates a higher acid environment.

Other Findings
Amino acids and volatile compounds were also found in dunder, however their impacts on the fermentation and final flavor in rum were insignificant.

Fermentation

​For Fresh Pressed Sugarcane, and Sugary Syrup Rum skip to Dilution
Pretreatment of molasses 
Molasses is pasteurized using heat, clarified using either flocculating agents or a centrifuge, and pH from 5.5 to 5.0 typically using sulfuric acid.

Dilution 
Molasses or sugar is diluted with water to 15–20° Brix or 10–15% w/v. Dilution creates a more stable growth environment for microbial growth. Molasses, though containing adequate levels of carbon, vitamins and minerals, has a very high concentration of soluble sugar, low water activity, relatively low pH and is a poor source of nitrogen and phosphorus.

Water chemistry will affect yeast growth, as it can provide essential minerals for yeast propagation. Alternatively, additional nutrients can be added to the fermentation. This is similar to the way that beer brewers manipulate water chemistry.

Inoculation 
Yeast, nutrients for yeast like ammonium phosphate and ammonium sulphate, and potentially dunder are added.

Fermentation
Rum fermentation vessels vary in size, material and shape, and are producer-dependent. There are no defined rules. It is typical to find both open topped fermenters that allow for ambient yeast and bacteria to inoculate the mash, as well as closed top fermenters. However, when open topped fermentation occurs, the vessels are stored indoors, which can make the fermentation room in its totality the fermentation vessel.
  • Duration 
    24 hours to three weeks, with 24-30 hours being a short fermentation for lighter style rums. The longer the fermentation, the more esters produced, and the more robust the flavors. Sugarcane juice ferments between
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  • Ideal fermentation temperature
    • Molasses, raw sugar or sugarcane syrup: 28–35°C with a maximum of 37°C.
    • Sugarcane juice: 28° – 32° C.

  • The final ABV of fermentation​: 5-7% ABV.
​To make high ester rums 
Lower side of High Ester (200 ppm)
  • Fermented wash is allowed to age for at least a week.
  • Fresh cane juice added to the wash mixture can give a different bouquet to the rum.
  • Acetic acid bacteria can convert alcohols acetic acid. This reduces ethanol yield.

Higher high ester rum
  • 15-21 day fermentation
  • Media is more acidic pH, as low as 3. Composition of media is critical. This is done by using fresh cane juice, reuse of dunder to add acidity and some high molecular weight organic acids, and acetic acid bacteria which form due to long aging.
  • Bacterial “contamination” is encouraged.
  • Acid slop: Yeast is added to acetic cane juice along with the wash and allowed to ferment similarly to yeast propagation. Medium and long chain fatty acids are formed during this time. Propagated culture is then used as the inoculum for a fermenter

​For more on high ester rum, read Vivian Wisdom, former distillery manager of Hamden Estate’s presentation here: wirspa.com/high-ester-rum-production-with-vivian-wisdom/
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Rum fermentation vat in Martinique

Distillation

Rum is distilled in a variety of unique still configurations. From a historical perspective, still configurations exist from a period of research and development in the late 1800s, which developed after the rules and regulations of European whiskey were set by already-established flavor profiles utilizing those stills, whereas American whiskey largely uses post-prohibition techniques. Given that many of the still designs were high enough capacity to remain profitable, legacy stills continue to be in operation. Steven Cage, the President and Owner of still maker company Cage and Sons Distilling Systems, provided some of the following insights:
  • ​Batch Distillation/Alembic Stills
  • ​Continuous Distillation/ Column Stills
  • ​Coffey Stills
  • ​Industrial Column Stills
  • ​Distillation Proof
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Batch distillation is typically used to produce
heavier and more flavorful styles of
rum than in a continuous distillation. In
the batch distillation process, time is used
to divide common batch distillation set-ups
in the rum industry, including:
• Pot stills and double distillation, where the first pass is known as the stripping run, and the second pass is known as
the spirits run.

• Double Retort Pot Stills (in American whiskey, this is known as a thumper) are also more common to the rum industry
on a larger scale than in many other spirits. This setup essentially connects multiple pot stills together.

• In more modern distilleries, there is a batch setup which includes a pot still and one or more column stills. In this setup, the different segments of the column still, which are separated by plates, act as mini-pot stills, in that there is some vapor that passes through to the very top, but each is designed to add reflux back into the main heating vessel. Ultimately this is then
collected in a similar way as other stills. A note on still types: The term ‘hybrid still’ is a source of confusion. Though there are columns, because the still design uses time to separate out the heads, hearts and tales, it is not continuous.
Continuous Distillation/ Column Stills
In continuous distillation, different parts of the still have different temperatures, which separates the segments of distillation. They are called continuous stills because they can be run continuously, 24/7, for as long as there is feedstock to be distilled. The resulting distillate is typically of higher proof than in batch distillation.

Coffey Stills were the original design for continuous distillation. Invented by Aeneas Coffey and then refined by his son
Aeneas Coffey, Jr. in the 1840s, the still has two parts: The first is called the beer column (or analyzer) where the “low wines”
are roughly separated from the mash/wash. The second part, which can be a separate column or higher up on an extended column, is called the rectifier column. This is where low wines are further refined and separated into the heads, hearts and tails, and each will sit in a different segment of the column.
Industrial Column Stills
In high volume, low priced rums, a series of column stills can be used to create a more refined spirit. Naturally, larger columns
are capable of distilling larger volumes of liquid. However, instead of building a single large vertical column, it can be separated
into smaller segments, including but not limited to:
• Aldehyde column is where heads can be collected and sold for industrial usage like fuel ethanol or can be run through
another column to further refine them and reclaim usable alcohol.

• Degassing column can refer to a post rectification process of the hearts portion which removes the higher volatile
portion of the heads.

• Simmering column is used to further refine the "hearts" portion. It is typically used to make high proof, exceptionally
neutral alcohol like flavorless vodka or medical grade ethanol.
Distillation Proof
Distillation proof varies based upon the type of rum produced. Typically, light rum is made in a column still and heavy rum
(high ester rum) is made in a pot still. However, this is not always true.
For more on distillation and stills:
https://www.hawaiibevguide.com/stills​

Maturation and Finishing

  • Maturation and Aging
  • Filtration and Proofing
  • Additional Ingredients
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Maturation
The fresh distillate can be subjected to a process of maturation where it is stored in stainless steel or large wooden barrels, generally made of oak, that hold approximately 120 – 150 L.
Aging
Due to the tropical climate in which rum is typically produced, the angel’s share is approximately 7% per year, compared to 4% in Kentucky or 2% for scotch. This influences various aspects of the aging process, including:

​Barrel Type: It is common to use once filled barrels,
typically former bourbon barrels, to temper the amount of oak extraction. Barrels may also be refilled after use. Some producers use wine barrels like sherry casks. In our
conversation with David Cid, he noted that this can act as a
substitute for adding sugar into rum due to the residual sugars left in the barrel.

Duration: Given an angel’s share of 7%, it only takes 10 years (vs. 17 years for bourbon)
before the barrel has half the liquid it first started with.

Barrel management
Barrel rotation is sometimes used to even out the aging process, as some parts of the warehouse are hotter than others. Barrel refilling or combining barrels from the same distillation run is also practiced to reduce the accelerated rate of evaporation due to increased headspace (amount of air) in the barrel. This also helps to produce more consistent batches, as two barrels filled with the same product and aged side-by-side will result in different end products, since wood is a natural material and has variation.

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Solera Aging
Due to the Spanish influence in rum making, the solera method, which is often used in sherry production, is used by some distillers. This method is based on the establishment of scales (criaderas) of progressively older rums, through which the rum flows until reaching the desired age. The final scale, called the “solera”, contains the oldest rum and supplies the finished
product. Each time rum is removed from a criadera, it is then topped up from the previous criaderas. The solera method produces a complex blend of ages in each butt, meaning that the age of the brandy can only be expressed as an average age of the finished rum. Inferring any relationship between the age on a solera rum versus a single barrel aged rum is impossible.


Numbers on Rum Bottles
Beyond the confusion due to the solera aging system, rum labeling is notoriously misleading, as companies like to print numbers on bottles which may or may not allude to age. With rum, when it comes to labels, UNLESS IT STATES IT IS AGED X YEARS, it is safer to assume the number is irrelevant.
Common Rum Filtration Types
Carbon/Charcoal Filtration
This style of filtration was popularized by Bacardi, and is commonly used to remove color from aged product. This results in some oak flavors and softness.

Cold Filtration
Is used to remove any molecules that may fall out of solution due to a temperature change, This can reduce flavor.

Proofing
Rum is typically proofed to 40% ABV or 80 proof, although there are variations.
  • • Over proof rum is above 40% ABV. There is no standard definition. Common over proof rums include those at 151.
  • • Navy strength rum is proofed at 57% ABV. This differs from Navy style rum, which attempts to replicate the rum given as rations to the British Royal Navy.
Additional ingredients
Additive rums versus non-additive rums are a massive issue in the rum industry,
because they compare two different products. One contains added natural or artificial flavors and sugar, whereas one does not. This is not to say one is better than
the other, but from a pricing perspective, non-additive rum is more expensive.

Sugar can balance out bitterness however there has been a recent push to avoid this practice. The bigger issues with added sugar in rum is when brands are not transparent about if and how much sugar they use..

Caramel color is often used to even out the color in rum and other brown spirits. In general, the caramel color does not provide any flavor. It should be noted that there are different types of caramel color. A common standard is E150, which comes in series a-d or I-IV depending on manufacturer.

​Other additives in “non-flavored rum”
There are issues with transparency in rum in regards to additives and flavors.
Another issue that arises is thus: At what point is a rum a flavored rum? The rules
regarding additives vary by country. The following are common additives (assuming
additives are used):
  • Glycol or glycerin are sometimes added as sweeteners or to manipulate the texture of the rum. However, some brands are not transparent about this.
  • Vanilla extract or vanilla flavor (artificial) is sometimes added for more vanilla flavor.
  • Tutti Frutti is used to artificially add the dried fruit flavors that are typically achieved in quality fermentations and distillations.
  • Marshmallow flavoring is used to get caramel notes typically achieved Tanduay from barrel aging.

Geographical Indications

  • Jamaica Geographical Indication Act
  • Cachaça (Brazil)
  • ​Rhum de la Martinique AOC (Rhum Agricole)
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Additional notes on Rums with Geographical Indicators (GI's)
Jamaica Geographical Indication Act
Full Text moj.gov.jm/laws/protection-geographical-indications-act-0
Abridged Jamaican Rum Geographical Indication (JRASTA Regs) from Guardians of Rum:
Only rum obtained by distillation, using wash produced with naturally filtered limestone water obtained from the territory of the limestone Aquifer water basins, as figured in the map in annex 1. The fermented wash shall be produced using sugarcane molasses, juice of sugarcane, crystallized cane sugar, sugarcane syrup or a mixture or combination of the above which comply with the conditions of the present code are entitled to the Geographical Indication “Jamaica Rum.” No additives, only color from oak barrels.


Cachaça
There are 4,000 brands of cachaça with Sao Paulo, Pernambuco, and Cerno making up over 60% of the production, however the state of Minas Gerais is notable for its artisanal cachaça.12
Bidistillation (double distilling) was effectively introduced in Brazil in 1991 by Novaes (1994), with the purpose of suppressing the ethyl carbamate in the cachaça produced at a plant in the city of Nova Friburgo (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil).
https://www.ttb.gov/images/pdfs/press-releasefy1305-cache-td.pdf

Aging
Cask type: Wooden casks made of a variety of hardwoods including oak, as well as a variety of native woods with a maximum container size of 700L. Brazilian law classifies cachaça into three types:
  • Aged Cachaça: Up to 50% un-aged cachaça and at least 50% cachaça which was aged at least one year.
  • Premium Cachaça: 100% of distillate aged at least one year.
  • Extra Premium Cachaça: 100% of the distillate must be aged for a minimum of 3 years.

For the full text of INSTRUÇÃO NORMATIVA Nº 13, DE 29 DE JUNHO DE 2005
www.gov.br/agricultura/pt-br/assuntos/inspecao/produtos-vegetal/legislacao-1/biblioteca-de-normas-vinhos-e-bebidas/instrucao-normativa-no-13-de-29-de-junho-de-2005.pdf/
​Rhum de la Martinique AOC
Rhum Agricole
Rhum de la Martinique is the most influential, and is synonymous with Rhum Agricole. The English translation of the AOC rules can be found at the trade group website. Here’s the abridged version from: guardiansofrum.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/AOC-Martinique-English.pdf

SPECIFICATIONS
OF THE APPELLATION OF CONTROLLED ORIGIN
"Rhum de la Martinique"
Translated from the French - Cahier des charges de l'appelation d'origine contrôlée “ Rhum de la Martinique” - by Benoit Bail

2. Cultivation of the cane
The irrigation of sugarcane is limited to a maximum period of 6 months following the date of harvesting or planting. It is prohibited between December 1 and the date of harvest. Any substance intended to help the maturation of the sugarcane is prohibited.

4. Analytical criteria for cane juice
The juices extracted from the sugarcane have the following values: Sugar content higher than or equal to 14 ° Brix; pH level higher than or equal to 4.7 . . .

6. Juice extraction
Before grinding by the mills, the canes are cut by cane cutters or defibrated by shredders; these two operations can be combined. The extraction of the juice combines mechanical pressure and imbibition of the canes. The pressure is exerted on cold in horizontal mills. The imbibition is carried out exclusively at room temperature from water or juice from the last mills. The juice is clarified by mechanical processes without heating or liming.
9. Aging rums
"Blanc" agricole rums are colorless and rest in vats for a minimum of 6 weeks after their distillation.

The agricole rums “élevé sous bois” are placed in oak containers and aged for at least 12 months, starting at the fill of the container.

"Vieux" agricole rums are aged in oak containers with a capacity of less than 650 liters for at least three years, starting at the fill of the container.

"Vieux" agricole rums for which the vintage of the distillation year is claimed are aged in oak containers with a capacity of less than 650 liters for at least six years, starting at the fill of the container. The minimum durations defined above are carried out without interruption, with the exception of necessary manipulations for the development of the products.

10. Finishing
Finishing methods are allowed so that their effect on the obscuration of the agricole rum is less than 2% vol. Obscuration, in particular related to the extraction of wood or the adaptation of the color by the addition of caramel, expressed in % by vol., is obtained by the difference between the real alcoholic strength by volume and the gross alcoholic strength by volume.

For the full text of
SPECIFICATIONS
OF THE APPELLATION OF CONTROLLED ORIGIN
"Rhum de la Martinique"
https://guardiansofrum.org/wpcontent/uploads/2019/09/AOC-Martinique-English.pdf​

Resources and Suggested Reading Resources

1. Mangwanda, Tinashe & Johnson, Joel & Mani, Janice & Jackson, Steve & Chandra, Shaneel & Mckeown, Tyryn & White, Simon & Naiker, Mani. (2021). Processes, Challenges and Optimisation of Rum Production from Molasses-A Contemporary Review. Fermentation. 7. 21. 10.3390/fermentation7010021. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349121202_Processes_Challenges_and_Optimisation_of_Rum_Production_from_Molasses-A_Contemporary_ReviewContemporary_Review

2. United States Standards for Grades of Sugarcane Molasses (1959). https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/Sugarcane_Molasses_Standard%5B1%5D.pdf

3. Alamilla Magaña, Juan & Eugenio, Carrillo & Olan, Obrador & Landeros-Sánchez, Cesáreo & Lopez, Javier & Juárez-López, J.F.,. (2016). Soil moisture tension effect on sugar cane growth and yield. Agricultural Water Management. 177. 264-273. 10.1016/j.agwat.2016.08.004.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306418808_Soil_moisture_tension_effect_on_sugar_cane_growth_and_yield

4. Medeiros, Adriane & Matos, M.E. & Monteiro, A. & De Carvalho, Júlio & Soccol, Carlos. (2017). Cachaça and Rum. 10.1016/B978-0-444-63666-9.00016-9. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311997656_Cachaca_and_Rum

5. Arroyo, R., (1945a). Studies on Rum Bulletin University of Puerto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station, Rio Piedras

6. Fahrasmane, L., Parfait, A., Jouret, C., & Galzy, P., (1985). Production of Higher Alcohols and Short Chain Fatty Acids by Different Yeasts Used in Rum Fermentations Journal of Food Science 50 p 1427-1430
https://www.bostonapothecary.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/FAHRASMANE_et_al-1985-Journal_of_Food_Science.pdf

7. Ashby, S.F., (1907). The study of fermentations in the manufacture of Jamaica rum. International Sugar Journal 11 p 243-251 https://www.bostonapothecary.com/s-f-ashby-the-study-of-fermentations-in-the-manufacture-of-jamaica-rum-1909/

8. Ashby, S.F., (1907). The study of fermentations in the manufacture of Jamaica rum. International Sugar Journal 11 p 243-251 https://www.bostonapothecary.com/s-f-ashby-the-study-of-fermentations-in-the-manufacture-of-jamaica-rum-1909/

9. Green, Victoria. The microbial ecology of a rum production process. University of New South Wales School of Chemical Sciences. and Engineering, Mar. 2015, http://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/fapi/datastream/unsworks:36385/SOURCE02?view=true

10. Schwan RF, Mendonça AT, da Silva JJ Jr, Rodrigues V, Wheals AE. Microbiology and physiology of Cachaça (Aguardente) fermentations. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek. 2001 Jan;79(1):89-96. doi: 10.1023/a:1010225117654. PMID: 11392489.

11. Gomes, Fatima & Silva, Carol & Vianna, Cristina & Lacerda, Inayara & Borelli, Beatriz & Nunes, Alvaro Cantini & Franco, Gloria & Mourão, Marina & Rosa, Carlos. (2010). Identification of lactic acid bacteria associated with traditional cachaça fermentations. Brazilian journal of microbiology : [publication of the Brazilian Society for Microbiology]. 41. 486-92. 10.1590/S1517-838220100002000031.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256542231_Identification_of_lactic_acid_bacteria_associated_with_traditional_cachaca_fermentations

12. Medeiros, A.B.P.; de Matos, M.E.; de Pinho Monteiro, A.; de Carvalho, J.C.; Soccol, C.R. 16—Cachaça and Rum. In Current Developments in Biotechnology and Bioengineering; Pandey, A., Sanromán, M.Á., Du, G., Soccol, C.R., Dussap, C.-G., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2017; pp. 451–468
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311997656_Cachaca_and_Rum
*This is an overall great analysis and study of the process of making Cachaca*

13. Pietrek, Matt, and Vivian Wisdom. High Ester Rum Production with Vivian Wisdom, WIRSPA, 12 July 2020,
www.wirspa.com/high-ester-rum-production-with-vivian-wisdom/

14. Strengell, Teemu. Caramel E150, January 1, 1970. https://whiskyscience.blogspot.com/2011/04/caramel-e150.html

15. “Rules and Laws.” LIST OF RULES, LAWS AND GEOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS. Guardians of Rum, June 18, 2020. https://guardiansofrum.org/rules-and-laws/.

16. 1 INSTRUÇÃO NORMATIVA Nº 13, DE 29 DE JUNHO DE 2005 Aprova o Regulamento Técnico Para Fixação Dos Padrões De Identidade e Qualidade Para Aguardente De Cana e Para Cachaça., BRAZIL MINISTRO DE ESTADO DA AGRICULTURA, 29 June 2005, www.gov.br/agricultura/pt-br/assuntos/inspecao/produtos-vegetal/legislacao-1/biblioteca-de-normas-vinhos-e-bebidas/instrucao-normativa-no-13-de-29-de-junho-de-2005.pdf/.

17. Bruno, Sergio Nicolau Freire. Distillation of Brazilian Sugar Cane Spirits (Cachaças). Laboratório Nacional Agropecuário, RJ-MG, Ministério da Agricultura Brazil, March 23, 2012. https://www.gov.br/agricultura/pt-br/assuntos/inspecao/produtos-vegetal/legislacao-1/biblioteca-de-normas-vinhos-e-bebidas/instrucao-normativa-no-13-de-29-de-junho-de-2005.pdf/

Rum Available in Hawaii