Mesoamerica Climate

Picture
The People
While the people of the region including the Olmec (1200 BCE to 400 BCE.) [2], Maya (2000 BCE to 1697 CE Inomata et al. 2020), Zapotec (700 BCE–1521 CE) [3], and Aztec (1300 to 1521) [4] are significant as they have directly influenced what is cultivated, it is beyond the scope of this particular article and will be addressed in the future. We have also minimized our references to “Mexican Cuisine” as we shall discuss the regional variations and introduced ingredients in that issue as well.

Insightful Sources and Suggested Reading

For the following segment, we references the following sources which we highly suggest reading for more insight.

Comprehensive
[5] Coe, S. D. (2015). America’s First Cuisines (e-book ed.). University of Texas Press.
Dr. Sophie Coe (b.1933 d.1994) an anthropologist and food historian, highlights pre-Columbian cuisine and paints an eloquent picture of its historical relevance. This is for anyone telling a story through menu development. This is a must-read. It should be noted that the original text was published posthumously in 1994.
[6] Colunga-GarcíaMarín, P., & Zizumbo-Villarreal, D. (2004). Domestication of plants in Maya lowlands. Economic botany, 58(1), S101-S110. Retrieved from academia.edu/4586391/Domestication_of_plants_in_Maya_Lowlands
​
​The article provides a summary of botany insights into food species with wild populations or wild ancestors in the lowland Maya area that are currently associated with the traditional agriculture of the Yucatan Peninsula. It suggests that these species could have been the subject of human selection or agricultural manipulation by local human populations since at least 3400 BC.

Mayan Specific
[7] Coe, M. D. (1999). The Maya (5th ed.). Thames and Hudson.
This book, now in its 10th edition (we had access to the 5th), is a staple of Mayan archaeology and anthropology. Dr. Michael Coe (b. 1929 d.2019) is the former Professor Emeritus of Yale’s Anthropology Department and the husband of Dr. Sophie Coe.
[8] Benson, E. P. (1977). The Maya World. Crowell.

Aztec Specific
[9] Smith, M. E. (1996). The Aztecs. Blackwell Publishers.
[10] Townsend, R. F. (2009). The Aztecs. Thames and Hudson.

Zapotec and Historical Oaxaca
The_Zapotecs
Rodríguez, V. P., Morell-Hart, S., & King, S. M. (Eds.). (2024). Mesquite Pods to Mezcal: 10,000 Years of Oaxacan Cuisines. University of Texas Press.

This book is new and whilevit was not used in the development of this article, will be used for a future article on Oaxaca

​Modern Mexico

As previously mentioned, these do not define authenticity but give a broad perspective on ingredient utilization. They also are non-regional, whereas many cuisines in Mexico, like in other large countries, are regional due to climate’s influence on agriculture. The following two books are useful macro perspectives of modern Mexican cuisine, which we have often cited. For this reason, we have included in-line citations for quicker reference.
[11] Kennedy, D. (2014). The Essential Cuisines of Mexico: A Cookbook (eBook ed.). Clarkson Potter.
[12] Bayless, R., Bayless, D. G., & Brownson, J. (1996). Rick Bayless Mexican Kitchen. Scribner.

Mexico’s Current Agricultural Statistics
[13] Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera. (2023). Panorama agroalimentario 2023. Retrieved from www.gob.mx/siap/documentos/panorama-de-la-frontera-agricola-de-mexico-por-representacion-estatal-sader-328205

Staple Crops of Pre-columbian America: “Three Sisters”

The diet of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica was predominantly vegetarian, and the staple crops of the Olmec Aztec, Mayan, and Zapotec were sometimes referred to as the three sisters: maize (corn), beans, and squash​
  • Corn / Maize
  • Common Bean/ Frijol
  • Squash
<
>
Corn / Maize/ (Zea mays)
Maize refers to a plant native to the Americas, whereas corn is a generic term that refers to the main cereal crop of a region. According to Sophie Coe in America’s First Cuisines: “Corn was used for different plants in different countries at different times. Maze is a new world name, derived from the word that the Europeans picked up in the Antilles and then, after an acquaintance of some 30 years, imposed upon the Mexicans who had domesticated the plant and lived with it and depended on it for millennia. Maize is an indigenous name for this particular plant, Zea mays, and nothing else[14].”

Significant species and cultivars
There are five general categories of maize: dent, flint, flour, sweet, and pop, which differ in sugar, starch, and hardness [13] . Of these categories, many cultivars currently and historically have existed. Chapalote-Nal-Tel, for example, was likely the primary cultivar for the Aztecs [15]. The diversity of cultivars, through both natural breeding and genetic modification, has allowed maize to grow in a diverse set of environments. There are still land-race cultivars in Mexico, which are domesticated, locally adapted, and often traditional varieties [16]. For more insight into these landrace cultivars,
Perales, H., & Golicher, D. (2014). Mapping the diversity of maize races in Mexico. PloS one, 9(12), e114657. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0114657
Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings
    • Brandy, Shochu, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, and Vodka.
  • Form factor for cocktail use
    • Bourbon (at least 50% corn), Corn Whiskey, Fresh corn.

History of Domestication
Domestication is believed to have started in southwestern Mexico 9,000 years ago, from the still-existing lowland wild grass Balsas teosinte (Zea mays spp. parviglumis), although this was not widespread [17]. A second crossing with teosinte from the Mexican highlands is believed to be the source of the widespread maize domestication. There is additional research being conducted at Dr Kan Wang’s lab at Iowa State to learn more about the genetic history of the crop [18]. Teosinte is a word of Nahuatl origin, and it can be interpreted to mean “grain of the gods [19].

Commercial Significance in Mexico
7th largest global producer (26.5 million tons in 2022)

Primary Growing Locations (in 2022)
  • Central Mexico grows ~60% of Mexico’s maize.
  • Sinaloa (northwest region) 20.8 tons
  • Jalisco (west-central region) 16.2 tons
  • Michoacán (west-central region) 8.3 tons

Example Culinary Usage
Nixtamalization (nextamalli is the Nahuatl word for “hominy”) is used by many ancient cultures to soften maize kernels. Carmen (2003) explains the process involves cooking the kernels for 8-16 hours with an alkali powder. In Mesoamerica, the alkali powder was made of lime (Ca(OH) 2), and in North America, it was made of wood ashes (KOH) or lye (NaOH). Then, the maize was washed by hand to remove the pericarp (seed coat). This process also increased the nutritional value of the maize, making it a staple crop.

​The result of Nixtamalization was hominy. Hominy could then be transformed into masa (ground hominy), tamale (steamed masa with filling), tortilla (masa cooked on flat pottery), and atole/atolli (hominy in water to make a beverage or porridge). These hominy form factors created a base that used a multitude of ingredients like seasoning, condiments, or accouterment. Modern usages are similar but with a broader diversity of ingredients. In particular, meat is more abundant as the Mayan and Aztec diets were predominantly vegetable-driven (Coe, 2015).

This process is also significant for some types of Mexican Corn Whiskey due to its influence on gelatinization of starch, amino acid concentration, and lipid concentration. Mexican Corn Whiskey will be highlighted in an issue about corn
Common Bean/ Frijol (Phaseolus vulgaris)

Significant Cultivars
  • Since 3000 BC, the tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius)and the scarlet runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus) were domesticated [20].
  • Modern beans include kidney, navy, pinto, and wax beans.

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings
    • Brandy, Gin, Shochu, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, or Vodka
  • Form factor for cocktail use
    • Water from canned beans, though traditionally chickpeas, can be made into aquafaba. This involves mixing bean water (which provides proteins) with cream of tartar as a stabilizer, and optionally sugar. Aquafaba can be used instead of egg white in sour mixes. Caution: Some beans work better than others due to aroma.

History of Domestication
The wild gene pool, of unknown origin, naturally diverged into an Andes gene pool and a Mesoamerican gene pool. Domestication subsequently occurred in those areas [21].

Commercial Significance in Mexico
6th largest global producer in 2022 (965,371 tonnes), though 83,530 tonnes were imported while only 58,779 tonnes were exported.

Primary Growing Locations (in 2022)
  • Zacatecas (northwest region): 307,495 tonnes
  • Sinaloa (northwest region): 165,475 tonnes
  • Guerrero (central region): 16,037 tonnes

Examples of Culinary Usage
Historically, beans were the principal source of protein and supplemented the amino acids maize could not provide [10] and were served at every meal [9]. Epazote was a popular seasoning (Coe, 2015).
Squash (Cucurbita spp.)

Significant species and cultivars [22]
  • Cucurbita argyrosperma includes Cushaw squash and silver-seed gourd.
  • Cucurbita moschata includes butternut squash, calabasa/kalabasa, and ayote.
  • Cucurbita pepo includes field pumpkin (jack-o-lantern pumpkin), summer squash, zucchini/courgette (UK name), acorn squash, and tatume.

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings
    • Brandy, Sochu, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, or Vodka.
  • Form Factor for Cocktail Use
    • Cooked squash that is pureed and strained with water and spices to create a syrup. For flip-style cocktails, straining may not be necessary. When cooked, squash’s high sugar content provides caramel sweetness with an aroma unobtainable from sugar or another sweetener.
    • Pepita (pumpkin seeds) can rim a glass and provide toasty aromas.

History of Domestication
Originating in the upper Amazon basin, 5,300 year old cacao was identified from the Santa Ana-La Florida site in Southeastern Ecuador [23].

Commercial Significance in Mexico
7th largest global producer in 2022 (551,886 tonnes)

Primary Growing Locations (in 2022)
  • Sonora (Northeast) 144,781 tonnes
  • Puebla (Central) 76,235 tonnes
  • Sinaloa (Northeast) tonnes

Culinary Usage Examples
Historically, squash was eaten in various stages of development, including the flowers during the flowering stage, the shoot tips of immature fruit, and the ripe seeds [20]. It is believed that the wild Cucurbita fruit was first used for containers but not eaten as it is bitter and stringy [20]. Eventually, domestication resulted in the edible Cucurbita pepo, which was found in Oaxaca by 8750 to 7840 BC [20]. There is a Mayan combination of Ground toasted squash seeds + Epazote + water + as a tortilla dip [24], the Aztec roasted and ground squash seeds [25]. Due to its importance as a container, squashes and calabashes (used as containers) became the third most important crop of the Aztecs [10] [20][26] .

In modernity, the Zucchini Squash and Pumpkin are the primary squash mentioned by Kennedy (2014). The pumpkin seeds (pepita) are also mentioned as thickeners for mole.

For more on Mesoamerican Squash
Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad (CONABIO). (2020). Calabazas, tamalayotas, pipianas, chilacayotes [Pumpkins, tamalayotas, pipianas, chilacayotes]. In Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad. Retrieved from www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/diversidad/alimentos/calabazas

Major Starchy Roots

  • ​Amaranth
  • Mesquite Beans
  • Sweet potatoes
  • Jicama ​
  • Other Starchy Roots
<
>
Amaranth/ Amaranto/ (Chenopodium nuttalliae)
Huauzontle (literally “hairy amaranth,” from the Nahuatl huauhtli ‘amaranth’ and tzontli’ hair’ had immense ritual significance.

Other Significant Starches
Mesquite Beans/ Mezquite (Prosopis spp)

Significant species and cultivars
Not specified. The Kiawe species in Hawaii is Prosopis pallida [47].

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings:
    • Brandy, Gin, Shochu, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, Vodka)
  • Form Factor for Cocktail Use
    • Popped/puffed amaranth to rim a glass.

History of Domestication
It is believed that Hairy amaranth results from an independent and much later domestication event than North American species because, as Eastern origin hypothesis proponents argue, there is no archaeological evidence for domestic chenopod use in Mexico before historical times [27] .

Commercial Significance in Mexico

Primary Growing Locations (in 2022)
  • Puebla (central region): 2858 tonnes
  • Tlaxcala (central region): 2227 tonnes

Examples of Culinary Use
  • Historically, Aztec Huautli (amaranth) was second in importance only to maize [10]. It was ground into a dough using a similar technique to maize and chia [9]. The dough was sometimes shaped into small figures of the gods and was then consumed on ritual occasions. It could also be made into an atolli and flavored with honey called Hoauhatollli.
  • In modern times, it is used in granola and manufactured into flour for bread, tortillas, and desserts.
Mesquite Beans/ Mezquite (Prosopis spp)

Significant species and cultivars
Not specified. The Kiawe species in Hawaii is Prosopis pallida [40].

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings:
    • Brandy, Shochu (imo), Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, or Vodka.
  • Form Factor for cocktails
    • ​Mesquite tea of roasted mesquite beans steeped in water.

History of Domestication
Not found at the time of publishing.

Culinary Usage Examples
Mesquite flour was made from the bean pods from mesquite trees by grinding and milling the dried pods and sifting out the larger pieces to form a flour [41]. Mesquite beans were one of the major, if not the most important, food sources of the desert Apache, Pima, Cahuilla, Maricopa, Yuma, Yavapai, Mohave, Walapi, and Hopi tribes [42]. The production of flour still remains.
Sweet potatoes/ Camote (Ipomoea batatas)
Amote is derived from the Uto-Aztecan word camotli.

Significant species and cultivars
The multitude of sweet potato cultivars range in color from white to yellow to orange to purple. The orange ones are sometimes mischaracterized as yams (Dioscorea spp). Many cultivars currently available in the United States are derived from agricultural breeding programs. We unable to find a common cultivar list for Mexico at the time of publication. A USA-centric cultivar list can be found at Wikipedia contributors. (2024, February 4). List of sweet potato cultivars. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:37, March 24, 2024, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_sweet_potato_cultivars&oldid=1203033972

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings
    • Brandy, Shochu, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, Vodka

Form Factor for Cocktail Use
Use as Imo (sweet potato) shochu or as a syrup (combine cooked and pureed sweet potato, sugar, and spice, then strain).

History of Domestication
The oldest archaeological evidence shows domestication around 2800 - 2400 BC in Peru. Thor Heyerdahl proposed that pre-Columbian Incas took sweet potatoes as they traveled to Polynesia [28].

As Ipomoea batatas originated in South America and made it to Polynesia before Europeans arrived, the hypothesis is that there was interaction between Polynesians and South Americans.

Commercial Significance in Mexico[29]
79,000 tons produced in 2022

Primary Growing Location
  • Michoacán with 39,377 tons.
  • Guanajuato with 9,188 tons.
  • Veracruz with 5,093 tons.

Examples of Culinary Usage
  • Historically, the sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and potato (Solanum tuberosum) have an “inextricably mixed” history, as the common names of papas (Quechua word used in Inca Empire), batatas (Taino name), patatas (combination of the two) [30] have been used to describe both species [13]. Coe (2015) notes that despite the linguistic evidence from the Uto-Aztecan word camotli, which is similar across the Pacific, there is nothing in the way of archaeological material in Mexico of its specific usage outside of its cultivation [13].
  • In “more” recent history, Bartolomé de las Casas (b. 1489 - d. 1554), a Spanish clergyman who was in Hispaniola and Guatemala, noted sweet potato preparation by washing them, curing them under light shade for 8-10 days, then roasting them [13].
  • Kennedy (2014) only utilizes sweet potato once in a dessert, and Bayless (1996) does not mention it as a primary ingredient.
Jicama (Pachyrhizus erosus)
Jicama is Spanish and derived from Nahuatl xīcamatl [38]

Significant species and cultivars [39]
  • Jícama de agua has a top-shaped to oblate root and a more watery, translucent juice and is the preferred form for the market.
  • Jícama de leche has an elongated root and milky juice, while the agua form.

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairing:
    • Gin, Shochu, Rum (Unaged), Tequila (Blanco)
  • Form Factor for cocktail use:
    • ​Fresh slices as a garnish

History of Domestication
Jicama was likely domesticated in the south of Mexico and northern Central America, though the precise center of domestication has not yet been defined [6].

Examples of Culinary Usage
  • Historically, it was Consumed raw by Mayans and Aztecs [21], and the Aztecs served jicama steamed or stewed with other ingredients in a variety of dishes. [10] Kennedy also noted modern recipes that use a similar approach (Kennedy 2015 Location 7393)
  • In modernity, Bayless (1996) notes a snack of raw Jicama with a dusting of chili and a squeeze of lime (Bayless, 1996, p. 13) as a condiment with shrimp ceviche (Bayless, 1996, p. 89).
  • Both Kennedy (2014) and Bayless (1996) propose salads of Jicamas, cilantro, and citrus juice, with Bayless also suggesting cucumber, powdered chili, and onion (Bayless, 1996, p. 89) (Kennedy, 2014, Location 4525).
Other Major Starchy Roots

Potato/Papa (Solanum tuberosum)
Origin: Earliest domestication is in Peru between 8000 BC and 3800 BC.

​Tapioca/ Manioc/Cassava (British term)
Manioc/yucca originated in the lowlands of Venezuela and Columbia by ~3000 BC [14]. It also provided more calories and was easier to grow and store than maize. It was typically baked into cakes by both Mayan and Aztecs.

Cacao

Cacao
​Cacao is the name of the Theobroma cacao plant. Chocolate is made from the seeds of the cacao fruit and typically involves the addition of sugar and often cocoa butter. Ancient Aztec and Mayan cultures highly valued cacao and chocolate. Due to this value, it was consumed in beverage form, but the written accounts note that it was only for religious ceremonies and medicinal purposes. However, due to geography, cacao was more scarce in the Aztec kingdom than the Mayan kingdom. Cacao typically grows ~20 degrees from the equator, with a higher concentration growing closer to the equator because of the wetter and warmer climate. The Aztec term for cacao was cacahuatl [34].

Significant species and cultivars
  • Multiple hybrids exist for each subspecies [35].
  • Criollo (Theobroma cacao ssp. cacao)
  • Forastero (Theobroma cacao ssp. ssp. sphaerocarpum) Trinitario, a hybrid of Forastero and Criollo
Cocktail Usage
Base Spirit Pairings: Brandy, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, and Whiskey.
Form factor: Chocolate Syrup, Blended Chocolate

History of Domestication
  • Criollo cacao originated in Central America and evolved independently from the cacao populations in the Amazon basin (Motamayor et al., 2002).
  • Amazon basin cacao was Forastero

Commercial Significance in Mexico
14th largest global producer in 2022 (28,120 tonnes).

Primary Growing Location
  • Tabasco (south-southeast region) 17,319
  • Chiapas (south-southeast region) 10,521
  • Guerrero Centro 289
  • Cacao has a significant cultural influence in Oaxaca.

​Culinary Usage Examples
  • Aztec: Cacahuatl meaning “cacao water” [36].
  • The Mayans and Aztecs consumed cacao on special occasions as drinking chocolate, with the addition of flavors like spices [37]. The Aztecs called the preparation cacahuatl [36], and it involved toasting the beans, grinding them into a powder using a metate, and mixing it with water and other ingredients, including maize, chili, honey, and vanilla. [10] The difference between Mayan and Aztec preparation was that the Mayan preparation was heated, whereas the Aztec preparation was not. Fine chocolate was called tlaquetzalli (“precious thing”) by the Aztecs.

Other traditional cacao drink ingredients
  • Maize and amaranth [10]. Xoco-atl was created by combining ground cacao, soured maize dough, and water [19]. This was considered an inferior cacao drink according to Sahagun’s native informants.
  • Herbs included coriander and sage. [10]
  • Spices
    • Vanilla was an esteemed flavoring [10].
    • Allspice [32].
    • Mecaxochitl (Piper amalgo), a relative of black pepper [32].
    • Chilli (Capsicum annum) was added after drying and grinding it into a powder. The Molina vocabulary is called the drink chilacacahuatl. ​
    • Flowers [37]
      • Hueinacaztli “great ear”/ Teonacaztli “divine ear,” Xochinacaztli “flowery ear,” with nacaztli, meaning “ear” (Cymbopetalum pendulifolorum) dried flower petals were among the most valued cacao ingredients. These thick, ear-shaped petals are from the custard-apple family (Annonaceae) that grows in the tropical lowland forests of current-day Veracruz, Oaxaca, and Chiapas, making it scarce in the Aztec kingdom and were brought back by the pochtexa merchants from the expeditions.
      • Tlilxochitl “black flower”(Vanilla planifolia)
      • Mecaxochitl “string flower” (likely Piper sanctum): The flowers, said to be white by some and black by others, are tiny and packed onto an inflorescence.
      • Yolloxochitl “heart flower” (Magnolia mexicana) tastes of ripe melon [38] when fresh, but drying the flowers causes a loss of fragrance.
      • Izquixochitl “popcorn flower” (Bourreria huanita) [39]: Fragrant white flowers
      • Uei nacaztli (Cymbopetalum penduliflorum), when dried, gives a cinnamon-like flavor.
      • Teonacaztli (Chiranthodendron pentadactylon), which had the flavor of “black pepper with a resinous bitterness” and was commonly used at banquets.
    • Seeds of different types were ground along with chocolate as noted by Sahagun [32]. These seeds inluded:
      • Piztle (the seeds of Calocarpum mammosum or “mamey sapote”) had the flavor of bitter almonds.
      • Pochotl (the seeds of Ceipa pentandra or “slike cotton tree”) [40] were described as “sweet and tasty”.

A common recipe consisted of mecaxochitl, uei nacaztli, vanilla, softened maize and cacao mixed with tepid water, and was drunk immediately after preparation.

Modern Culinary Usage in Mexico
  • Kennedy (2014) proposes two atole recipes. Miel de cacao Champurrado is a chocolate-based atole prepared with either masa de maíz, masa harina, or corn flour; piloncillo; water or milk; and occasionally containing cinnamon, anise seed, or vanilla. Ground nuts, orange zest, and eggs can be used to thicken and enrich the drink.
  • Mole poblano
  • Bayless (1996) presents a Flan de Chocolate con Kahlua, which is a flan with Kahlua, Mexican canela (or cinnamon), vanilla, and almond extract. Given the custard base, this can be replicated as a flip-style cocktail (Bayless, 1996, pp. 390-391).


​Sources and Suggested Reading

1. Gepts, P. (1998). Origin and Evolution of Common Bean: Past Events and Recent Trends. HortScience HortSci, 33(7), 1124-1130. Retrieved Mar 23, 2024, from https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.33.7.1124

2. Wikipedia contributors. (2024, March 4). Olmecs. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:51, March 23, 2024, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php title=Olmecs&oldid=12118378314

3. Wikipedia contributors. (2024, January 11). Zapotec civilization. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:19, March 23, 2024, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zapotec_civilization&oldid=1194988407

4. Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2020, August 28). Aztec Empire Timeline. Encyclopedia Britannica. www.britannica.com/summary/Aztec-Empire-Timeline

5. Coe, S. D. (2015). America’s First Cuisines (e-book ed.). University of Texas Press.

6. Colunga-GarcíaMarín, P., & Zizumbo-Villarreal, D. (2004). Domestication of plants in Maya lowlands. Economic botany, 58(1), S101-S110. Retrieved from academia.edu/4586391/Domestication_of_plants_in_Maya_Lowlands

7. Coe, M. D. (1999). The Maya (5th ed.). Thames and Hudson.

8. Benson, E. P. (1977). The Maya World. Crowell.Smith, M. E. (1996). The Aztecs. Blackwell Publishers. pp. 60-65.Townsend, R. F. (2009). The Aztecs. Thames and Hudson.

9. Kennedy, D. (2014). The Essential Cuisines of Mexico: A Cookbook (eBook ed.). Clarkson Potter.

10. Bayless, R., Bayless, D. G., & Brownson, J. (1996). Rick Bayless Mexican Kitchen. Scribner.

11. Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera. (2023). Panorama agroalimentario 2023. Retrieved from www.gob.mx/siap/documentos/panorama-de-la-frontera-agricola-de-mexico-por-representacion-estatal-sader-328205

12. Coe, S. D. (2015). America’s First Cuisines (e-book ed.). Chapter 2: New World Staples. University of Texas Press.

13. Benz, B.F. (1986). Taxonomy and Evolution of Mexican Maize (doctoral dissertation). University of Wisconsin, Madison. https://www.proquest.com/openview/b2847a21a85993887fca87f0c086502d/

14. Wikipedia contributors. (2024, March 17). Landrace. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:31, March 26, 2024, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Landrace&oldid=1214251041

15. Piperno, D. R., Ranere, A. J., Holst, I., Iriarte, J., & Dickau, R. (2009). Starch grain and phytolith evidence for early ninth millennium B.P. maize from the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(13), 5019–5024.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0812525106

16. Iowa State University. (2022, February 2). Scientists take major step in understanding domestication of corn. [News release]. Retrieved from
www.news.iastate.edu/news/2022/02/02/teosinte2022

17. Los Angeles Public Library International Languages Department. (2018, October 4). Pre-Columbian America: Food. Central Library. https://www.lapl.org/collections-resources/blogs/lapl/pre-columbian-america-food

18. Coe, S. D. (2015). America’s First Cuisines (e-book ed.). Chapter 3: New World Produce. University of Texas Press.

19. Gepts, P. (1998). Origin and Evolution of Common Bean: Past Events and Recent Trends. HortScience HortSci, 33(7), 1124-1130. Retrieved Mar 23, 2024, from https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.33.7.1124

20. Fedick, S. L., & Santiago, L. S. (2022). Large variation in availability of Maya food plant sources during ancient droughts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(1), e2115657118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2115657118

21. Zarrillo, S., Gaikwad, N., Lanaud, C., Powis, T., Viot, C., Lesur, I., Fouet, O., Argout, X., Guichoux, E., Salin, F. and Solorzano, R.L., 2018. The use and domestication of Theobroma cacao during the mid-Holocene in the upper Amazon. Nature ecology & evolution, 2(12), pp.1879-1888. Retrieved from: academia.edu/39637452/The_use_and_domestication_of_Theobroma_cacao_during_the_mid_Holocene_in_the_upper_Amazon_Main_Text
Hawaii Invasive Species Council. (n.d.). Long-thorn kiawe (Prosopis juliflora). [Website]. Retrieved from https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc/info/invasive-species-profiles/long-thorn-kiawe/22. Coe, S. D. (2015). America’s First Cuisines (e-book ed.). Chapter 9: Solid Maya Breadstuffs. University of Texas Press.

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