Part 1: Staple Crops, Significant Starches, Cacao

Mesoamerica Climate

Picture
The People
While the people of the region including the Olmec (1200 BCE to 400 BCE.) [2], Maya (2000 BCE to 1697 CE Inomata et al. 2020), Zapotec (700 BCE–1521 CE) [3], and Aztec (1300 to 1521) [4] are significant as they have directly influenced what is cultivated, it is beyond the scope of this particular article and will be addressed in the future. We have also minimized our references to “Mexican Cuisine” as we shall discuss the regional variations and introduced ingredients in that issue as well.

The People
A recent archaeological finding has drastically moved the Mayan civilization timeline so that the Olmec and Mayan Civilizations are now known to overlap. For more:
Inomata, T., Triadan, D., López, V. A. V., Fernandez-Diaz, J. C., Omori, T., Bauer, M. B. M., ... & Nasu, H. (2020). Monumental architecture at Aguada Fénix and the rise of Maya civilization. Nature, 582(7813), 530-533 Source:
par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10161818

Olmec Civilization [11]
  • Timeline: Pre-Classical (Formative) Mesoamerica 1200 BCE to 400 BCE.
  • Region: South-central Mexico’s tropical lowlands in the present-day states of Veracruz and Tabasco.
  • Major archaeological sites: San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán (southeast Veracruz), La Venta (Tobasco), Tres Zapotes (Tamaulipas, Veracruz), Laguna de los Cerros (Veracruz).

Mayan Civilization [12]
  • Timeline: 2000 BCE to 1697 CE [13]
  • Region: Southeastern Mexico, including present-day Chiapas, Tobasco, the northern lowlands of the Yucatán Peninsula, all of Guatemala, including the highlands of the Sierra Madre and Belize, and the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador.
  • Major archilogocial sites: Uaxactun (Peten in Guatamala), Dzibilchaltún (Yucatan)

Aztec Civilization
  • Timeline: Post-classic period (1300 to 1521) [14].
  • Region: Central Mexico.
  • Major cities: Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), Texcoco (Mexico City) , and Tlacopan (Mexico City) [15].

Zapotec Civilization
  • Timeline: 700 BCE–1521 CE [16]
  • Region: Known as the ‘Cloud People’ they occupied the southern highlands of central Mesoamerica, specifically, in the Valley of Oaxaca,
  • Major archilogical sites: Valley of Oaxaca, include the capital Monte Albán, Lambityeco, Dainzu, Mitla, San Jose Mogote, Yagul, El Palmillo, Zaachila.

Colonial period: A.D. 1500-1800

Independent Mexico: A.D. 1821 to the present

Insightful Sources and Suggested Reading

For the following segment, we references the following sources which we highly suggest reading for more insight.

Comprehensive
[5] Coe, S. D. (2015). America’s First Cuisines (e-book ed.). University of Texas Press.
Dr. Sophie Coe (b.1933 d.1994) an anthropologist and food historian, highlights pre-Columbian cuisine and paints an eloquent picture of its historical relevance. This is for anyone telling a story through menu development. This is a must-read. It should be noted that the original text was published posthumously in 1994.
[6] Colunga-GarcíaMarín, P., & Zizumbo-Villarreal, D. (2004). Domestication of plants in Maya lowlands. Economic botany, 58(1), S101-S110. Retrieved from academia.edu/4586391/Domestication_of_plants_in_Maya_Lowlands
​
​The article provides a summary of botany insights into food species with wild populations or wild ancestors in the lowland Maya area that are currently associated with the traditional agriculture of the Yucatan Peninsula. It suggests that these species could have been the subject of human selection or agricultural manipulation by local human populations since at least 3400 BC.

Mayan Specific
[7] Coe, M. D. (1999). The Maya (5th ed.). Thames and Hudson.
This book, now in its 10th edition (we had access to the 5th), is a staple of Mayan archaeology and anthropology. Dr. Michael Coe (b. 1929 d.2019) is the former Professor Emeritus of Yale’s Anthropology Department and the husband of Dr. Sophie Coe.
[8] Benson, E. P. (1977). The Maya World. Crowell.

Aztec Specific
[9] Smith, M. E. (1996). The Aztecs. Blackwell Publishers.
[10] Townsend, R. F. (2009). The Aztecs. Thames and Hudson.

Zapotec and Historical Oaxaca
The_Zapotecs
Rodríguez, V. P., Morell-Hart, S., & King, S. M. (Eds.). (2024). Mesquite Pods to Mezcal: 10,000 Years of Oaxacan Cuisines. University of Texas Press.

This book is new and whilevit was not used in the development of this article, will be used for a future article on Oaxaca

​Modern Mexico

As previously mentioned, these do not define authenticity but give a broad perspective on ingredient utilization. They also are non-regional, whereas many cuisines in Mexico, like in other large countries, are regional due to climate’s influence on agriculture. The following two books are useful macro perspectives of modern Mexican cuisine, which we have often cited. For this reason, we have included in-line citations for quicker reference.
[11] Kennedy, D. (2014). The Essential Cuisines of Mexico: A Cookbook (eBook ed.). Clarkson Potter.
[12] Bayless, R., Bayless, D. G., & Brownson, J. (1996). Rick Bayless Mexican Kitchen. Scribner.

Mexico’s Current Agricultural Statistics
[13] Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera. (2023). Panorama agroalimentario 2023. Retrieved from www.gob.mx/siap/documentos/panorama-de-la-frontera-agricola-de-mexico-por-representacion-estatal-sader-328205

Staple Crops of Pre-columbian America: “Three Sisters”

The diet of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica was predominantly vegetarian, and the staple crops of the Olmec Aztec, Mayan, and Zapotec were sometimes referred to as the three sisters: maize (corn), beans, and squash​
  • Corn / Maize
  • Common Bean/ Frijol
  • Squash
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Corn / Maize/ (Zea mays)
Maize refers to a plant native to the Americas, whereas corn is a generic term that refers to the main cereal crop of a region. According to Sophie Coe in America’s First Cuisines: “Corn was used for different plants in different countries at different times. Maze is a new world name, derived from the word that the Europeans picked up in the Antilles and then, after an acquaintance of some 30 years, imposed upon the Mexicans who had domesticated the plant and lived with it and depended on it for millennia. Maize is an indigenous name for this particular plant, Zea mays, and nothing else[14].”

Significant species and cultivars
There are five general categories of maize: dent, flint, flour, sweet, and pop, which differ in sugar, starch, and hardness [13] . Of these categories, many cultivars currently and historically have existed. Chapalote-Nal-Tel, for example, was likely the primary cultivar for the Aztecs [15]. The diversity of cultivars, through both natural breeding and genetic modification, has allowed maize to grow in a diverse set of environments. There are still land-race cultivars in Mexico, which are domesticated, locally adapted, and often traditional varieties [16]. For more insight into these landrace cultivars,
Perales, H., & Golicher, D. (2014). Mapping the diversity of maize races in Mexico. PloS one, 9(12), e114657. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0114657
Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings
    • Brandy, Shochu, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, and Vodka.
  • Form factor for cocktail use
    • Bourbon (at least 50% corn), Corn Whiskey, Fresh corn.

History of Domestication
Domestication is believed to have started in southwestern Mexico 9,000 years ago, from the still-existing lowland wild grass Balsas teosinte (Zea mays spp. parviglumis), although this was not widespread [17]. A second crossing with teosinte from the Mexican highlands is believed to be the source of the widespread maize domestication. There is additional research being conducted at Dr Kan Wang’s lab at Iowa State to learn more about the genetic history of the crop [18]. Teosinte is a word of Nahuatl origin, and it can be interpreted to mean “grain of the gods [19].

Commercial Significance in Mexico
7th largest global producer (26.5 million tons in 2022)

Primary Growing Locations (in 2022)
  • Central Mexico grows ~60% of Mexico’s maize.
  • Sinaloa (northwest region) 20.8 tons
  • Jalisco (west-central region) 16.2 tons
  • Michoacán (west-central region) 8.3 tons

Example Culinary Usage
Nixtamalization (nextamalli is the Nahuatl word for “hominy”) is used by many ancient cultures to soften maize kernels. Carmen (2003) explains the process involves cooking the kernels for 8-16 hours with an alkali powder. In Mesoamerica, the alkali powder was made of lime (Ca(OH) 2), and in North America, it was made of wood ashes (KOH) or lye (NaOH). Then, the maize was washed by hand to remove the pericarp (seed coat). This process also increased the nutritional value of the maize, making it a staple crop.

​The result of Nixtamalization was hominy. Hominy could then be transformed into masa (ground hominy), tamale (steamed masa with filling), tortilla (masa cooked on flat pottery), and atole/atolli (hominy in water to make a beverage or porridge). These hominy form factors created a base that used a multitude of ingredients like seasoning, condiments, or accouterment. Modern usages are similar but with a broader diversity of ingredients. In particular, meat is more abundant as the Mayan and Aztec diets were predominantly vegetable-driven (Coe, 2015).

This process is also significant for some types of Mexican Corn Whiskey due to its influence on gelatinization of starch, amino acid concentration, and lipid concentration. Mexican Corn Whiskey will be highlighted in an issue about corn
Common Bean/ Frijol (Phaseolus vulgaris)

Significant Cultivars
  • Since 3000 BC, the tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius)and the scarlet runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus) were domesticated [20].
  • Modern beans include kidney, navy, pinto, and wax beans.

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings
    • Brandy, Gin, Shochu, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, or Vodka
  • Form factor for cocktail use
    • Water from canned beans, though traditionally chickpeas, can be made into aquafaba. This involves mixing bean water (which provides proteins) with cream of tartar as a stabilizer, and optionally sugar. Aquafaba can be used instead of egg white in sour mixes. Caution: Some beans work better than others due to aroma.

History of Domestication
The wild gene pool, of unknown origin, naturally diverged into an Andes gene pool and a Mesoamerican gene pool. Domestication subsequently occurred in those areas [21].

Commercial Significance in Mexico
6th largest global producer in 2022 (965,371 tonnes), though 83,530 tonnes were imported while only 58,779 tonnes were exported.

Primary Growing Locations (in 2022)
  • Zacatecas (northwest region): 307,495 tonnes
  • Sinaloa (northwest region): 165,475 tonnes
  • Guerrero (central region): 16,037 tonnes

Examples of Culinary Usage
Historically, beans were the principal source of protein and supplemented the amino acids maize could not provide [10] and were served at every meal [9]. Epazote was a popular seasoning (Coe, 2015).
Squash (Cucurbita spp.)

Significant species and cultivars [22]
  • Cucurbita argyrosperma includes Cushaw squash and silver-seed gourd.
  • Cucurbita moschata includes butternut squash, calabasa/kalabasa, and ayote.
  • Cucurbita pepo includes field pumpkin (jack-o-lantern pumpkin), summer squash, zucchini/courgette (UK name), acorn squash, and tatume.

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings
    • Brandy, Sochu, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, or Vodka.
  • Form Factor for Cocktail Use
    • Cooked squash that is pureed and strained with water and spices to create a syrup. For flip-style cocktails, straining may not be necessary. When cooked, squash’s high sugar content provides caramel sweetness with an aroma unobtainable from sugar or another sweetener.
    • Pepita (pumpkin seeds) can rim a glass and provide toasty aromas.

History of Domestication
Originating in the upper Amazon basin, 5,300 year old cacao was identified from the Santa Ana-La Florida site in Southeastern Ecuador [23].

Commercial Significance in Mexico
7th largest global producer in 2022 (551,886 tonnes)

Primary Growing Locations (in 2022)
  • Sonora (Northeast) 144,781 tonnes
  • Puebla (Central) 76,235 tonnes
  • Sinaloa (Northeast) tonnes

Culinary Usage Examples
Historically, squash was eaten in various stages of development, including the flowers during the flowering stage, the shoot tips of immature fruit, and the ripe seeds [20]. It is believed that the wild Cucurbita fruit was first used for containers but not eaten as it is bitter and stringy [20]. Eventually, domestication resulted in the edible Cucurbita pepo, which was found in Oaxaca by 8750 to 7840 BC [20]. There is a Mayan combination of Ground toasted squash seeds + Epazote + water + as a tortilla dip [24], the Aztec roasted and ground squash seeds [25]. Due to its importance as a container, squashes and calabashes (used as containers) became the third most important crop of the Aztecs [10] [20][26] .

In modernity, the Zucchini Squash and Pumpkin are the primary squash mentioned by Kennedy (2014). The pumpkin seeds (pepita) are also mentioned as thickeners for mole.

For more on Mesoamerican Squash
Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad (CONABIO). (2020). Calabazas, tamalayotas, pipianas, chilacayotes [Pumpkins, tamalayotas, pipianas, chilacayotes]. In Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad. Retrieved from www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/diversidad/alimentos/calabazas

Major Starchy Roots

  • ​Amaranth
  • Mesquite Beans
  • Sweet potatoes
  • Jicama ​
  • Other Starchy Roots
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Amaranth/ Amaranto/ (Chenopodium nuttalliae)
Huauzontle (literally “hairy amaranth,” from the Nahuatl huauhtli ‘amaranth’ and tzontli’ hair’ had immense ritual significance.

Other Significant Starches
Mesquite Beans/ Mezquite (Prosopis spp)

Significant species and cultivars
Not specified. The Kiawe species in Hawaii is Prosopis pallida [47].

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings:
    • Brandy, Gin, Shochu, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, Vodka)
  • Form Factor for Cocktail Use
    • Popped/puffed amaranth to rim a glass.

History of Domestication
It is believed that Hairy amaranth results from an independent and much later domestication event than North American species because, as Eastern origin hypothesis proponents argue, there is no archaeological evidence for domestic chenopod use in Mexico before historical times [27] .

Commercial Significance in Mexico

Primary Growing Locations (in 2022)
  • Puebla (central region): 2858 tonnes
  • Tlaxcala (central region): 2227 tonnes

Examples of Culinary Use
  • Historically, Aztec Huautli (amaranth) was second in importance only to maize [10]. It was ground into a dough using a similar technique to maize and chia [9]. The dough was sometimes shaped into small figures of the gods and was then consumed on ritual occasions. It could also be made into an atolli and flavored with honey called Hoauhatollli.
  • In modern times, it is used in granola and manufactured into flour for bread, tortillas, and desserts.
Mesquite Beans/ Mezquite (Prosopis spp)

Significant species and cultivars
Not specified. The Kiawe species in Hawaii is Prosopis pallida [40].

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings:
    • Brandy, Shochu (imo), Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, or Vodka.
  • Form Factor for cocktails
    • ​Mesquite tea of roasted mesquite beans steeped in water.

History of Domestication
Not found at the time of publishing.

Culinary Usage Examples
Mesquite flour was made from the bean pods from mesquite trees by grinding and milling the dried pods and sifting out the larger pieces to form a flour [41]. Mesquite beans were one of the major, if not the most important, food sources of the desert Apache, Pima, Cahuilla, Maricopa, Yuma, Yavapai, Mohave, Walapi, and Hopi tribes [42]. The production of flour still remains.
Sweet potatoes/ Camote (Ipomoea batatas)
Amote is derived from the Uto-Aztecan word camotli.

Significant species and cultivars
The multitude of sweet potato cultivars range in color from white to yellow to orange to purple. The orange ones are sometimes mischaracterized as yams (Dioscorea spp). Many cultivars currently available in the United States are derived from agricultural breeding programs. We unable to find a common cultivar list for Mexico at the time of publication. A USA-centric cultivar list can be found at Wikipedia contributors. (2024, February 4). List of sweet potato cultivars. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 07:37, March 24, 2024, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_sweet_potato_cultivars&oldid=1203033972

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings
    • Brandy, Shochu, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, Vodka

Form Factor for Cocktail Use
Use as Imo (sweet potato) shochu or as a syrup (combine cooked and pureed sweet potato, sugar, and spice, then strain).

History of Domestication
The oldest archaeological evidence shows domestication around 2800 - 2400 BC in Peru. Thor Heyerdahl proposed that pre-Columbian Incas took sweet potatoes as they traveled to Polynesia [28].

As Ipomoea batatas originated in South America and made it to Polynesia before Europeans arrived, the hypothesis is that there was interaction between Polynesians and South Americans.

Commercial Significance in Mexico[29]
79,000 tons produced in 2022

Primary Growing Location
  • Michoacán with 39,377 tons.
  • Guanajuato with 9,188 tons.
  • Veracruz with 5,093 tons.

Examples of Culinary Usage
  • Historically, the sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and potato (Solanum tuberosum) have an “inextricably mixed” history, as the common names of papas (Quechua word used in Inca Empire), batatas (Taino name), patatas (combination of the two) [30] have been used to describe both species [13]. Coe (2015) notes that despite the linguistic evidence from the Uto-Aztecan word camotli, which is similar across the Pacific, there is nothing in the way of archaeological material in Mexico of its specific usage outside of its cultivation [13].
  • In “more” recent history, Bartolomé de las Casas (b. 1489 - d. 1554), a Spanish clergyman who was in Hispaniola and Guatemala, noted sweet potato preparation by washing them, curing them under light shade for 8-10 days, then roasting them [13].
  • Kennedy (2014) only utilizes sweet potato once in a dessert, and Bayless (1996) does not mention it as a primary ingredient.
Jicama (Pachyrhizus erosus)
Jicama is Spanish and derived from Nahuatl xīcamatl [38]

Significant species and cultivars [39]
  • Jícama de agua has a top-shaped to oblate root and a more watery, translucent juice and is the preferred form for the market.
  • Jícama de leche has an elongated root and milky juice, while the agua form.

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairing:
    • Gin, Shochu, Rum (Unaged), Tequila (Blanco)
  • Form Factor for cocktail use:
    • ​Fresh slices as a garnish

History of Domestication
Jicama was likely domesticated in the south of Mexico and northern Central America, though the precise center of domestication has not yet been defined [6].

Examples of Culinary Usage
  • Historically, it was Consumed raw by Mayans and Aztecs [21], and the Aztecs served jicama steamed or stewed with other ingredients in a variety of dishes. [10] Kennedy also noted modern recipes that use a similar approach (Kennedy 2015 Location 7393)
  • In modernity, Bayless (1996) notes a snack of raw Jicama with a dusting of chili and a squeeze of lime (Bayless, 1996, p. 13) as a condiment with shrimp ceviche (Bayless, 1996, p. 89).
  • Both Kennedy (2014) and Bayless (1996) propose salads of Jicamas, cilantro, and citrus juice, with Bayless also suggesting cucumber, powdered chili, and onion (Bayless, 1996, p. 89) (Kennedy, 2014, Location 4525).
Other Major Starchy Roots

Potato/Papa (Solanum tuberosum)
Origin: Earliest domestication is in Peru between 8000 BC and 3800 BC.

​Tapioca/ Manioc/Cassava (British term)
Manioc/yucca originated in the lowlands of Venezuela and Columbia by ~3000 BC [14]. It also provided more calories and was easier to grow and store than maize. It was typically baked into cakes by both Mayan and Aztecs.

Cacao

Cacao
​Cacao is the name of the Theobroma cacao plant. Chocolate is made from the seeds of the cacao fruit and typically involves the addition of sugar and often cocoa butter. Ancient Aztec and Mayan cultures highly valued cacao and chocolate. Due to this value, it was consumed in beverage form, but the written accounts note that it was only for religious ceremonies and medicinal purposes. However, due to geography, cacao was more scarce in the Aztec kingdom than the Mayan kingdom. Cacao typically grows ~20 degrees from the equator, with a higher concentration growing closer to the equator because of the wetter and warmer climate. The Aztec term for cacao was cacahuatl [34].

Significant species and cultivars
  • Multiple hybrids exist for each subspecies [35].
  • Criollo (Theobroma cacao ssp. cacao)
  • Forastero (Theobroma cacao ssp. ssp. sphaerocarpum) Trinitario, a hybrid of Forastero and Criollo
Cocktail Usage
Base Spirit Pairings: Brandy, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, and Whiskey.
Form factor: Chocolate Syrup, Blended Chocolate

History of Domestication
  • Criollo cacao originated in Central America and evolved independently from the cacao populations in the Amazon basin (Motamayor et al., 2002).
  • Amazon basin cacao was Forastero

Commercial Significance in Mexico
14th largest global producer in 2022 (28,120 tonnes).

Primary Growing Location
  • Tabasco (south-southeast region) 17,319
  • Chiapas (south-southeast region) 10,521
  • Guerrero Centro 289
  • Cacao has a significant cultural influence in Oaxaca.

​Culinary Usage Examples
  • Aztec: Cacahuatl meaning “cacao water” [36].
  • The Mayans and Aztecs consumed cacao on special occasions as drinking chocolate, with the addition of flavors like spices [37]. The Aztecs called the preparation cacahuatl [36], and it involved toasting the beans, grinding them into a powder using a metate, and mixing it with water and other ingredients, including maize, chili, honey, and vanilla. [10] The difference between Mayan and Aztec preparation was that the Mayan preparation was heated, whereas the Aztec preparation was not. Fine chocolate was called tlaquetzalli (“precious thing”) by the Aztecs.

Other traditional cacao drink ingredients
  • Maize and amaranth [10]. Xoco-atl was created by combining ground cacao, soured maize dough, and water [19]. This was considered an inferior cacao drink according to Sahagun’s native informants.
  • Herbs included coriander and sage. [10]
  • Spices
    • Vanilla was an esteemed flavoring [10].
    • Allspice [32].
    • Mecaxochitl (Piper amalgo), a relative of black pepper [32].
    • Chilli (Capsicum annum) was added after drying and grinding it into a powder. The Molina vocabulary is called the drink chilacacahuatl. ​
    • Flowers [37]
      • Hueinacaztli “great ear”/ Teonacaztli “divine ear,” Xochinacaztli “flowery ear,” with nacaztli, meaning “ear” (Cymbopetalum pendulifolorum) dried flower petals were among the most valued cacao ingredients. These thick, ear-shaped petals are from the custard-apple family (Annonaceae) that grows in the tropical lowland forests of current-day Veracruz, Oaxaca, and Chiapas, making it scarce in the Aztec kingdom and were brought back by the pochtexa merchants from the expeditions.
      • Tlilxochitl “black flower”(Vanilla planifolia)
      • Mecaxochitl “string flower” (likely Piper sanctum): The flowers, said to be white by some and black by others, are tiny and packed onto an inflorescence.
      • Yolloxochitl “heart flower” (Magnolia mexicana) tastes of ripe melon [38] when fresh, but drying the flowers causes a loss of fragrance.
      • Izquixochitl “popcorn flower” (Bourreria huanita) [39]: Fragrant white flowers
      • Uei nacaztli (Cymbopetalum penduliflorum), when dried, gives a cinnamon-like flavor.
      • Teonacaztli (Chiranthodendron pentadactylon), which had the flavor of “black pepper with a resinous bitterness” and was commonly used at banquets.
    • Seeds of different types were ground along with chocolate as noted by Sahagun [32]. These seeds inluded:
      • Piztle (the seeds of Calocarpum mammosum or “mamey sapote”) had the flavor of bitter almonds.
      • Pochotl (the seeds of Ceipa pentandra or “slike cotton tree”) [40] were described as “sweet and tasty”.

A common recipe consisted of mecaxochitl, uei nacaztli, vanilla, softened maize and cacao mixed with tepid water, and was drunk immediately after preparation.

Modern Culinary Usage in Mexico
  • Kennedy (2014) proposes two atole recipes. Miel de cacao Champurrado is a chocolate-based atole prepared with either masa de maíz, masa harina, or corn flour; piloncillo; water or milk; and occasionally containing cinnamon, anise seed, or vanilla. Ground nuts, orange zest, and eggs can be used to thicken and enrich the drink.
  • Mole poblano
  • Bayless (1996) presents a Flan de Chocolate con Kahlua, which is a flan with Kahlua, Mexican canela (or cinnamon), vanilla, and almond extract. Given the custard base, this can be replicated as a flip-style cocktail (Bayless, 1996, pp. 390-391).

A Guide to Indigenous Mesoamerican Cocktail Ingredients Part 2: Agave, Fruit, Herbs, Spices, Chili

Suggested Reading
For the following article, we references the following sources which we highly suggest reading for more insight.

Comprehensive
[1] Coe, S. D. (2015). America’s First Cuisines (e-book ed.). University of Texas Press.
Dr. Sophie Coe (b.1933 d.1994) an anthropologist and food historian, highlights pre-Columbian cuisine and paints an eloquent picture of its historical relevance. This is for anyone telling a story through menu development. This is a must-read. It should be noted that the original text was published posthumously in 1994.
[2] Colunga-GarcíaMarín, P., & Zizumbo-Villarreal, D. (2004). Domestication of plants in Maya lowlands. Economic botany, 58(1), S101-S110. Retrieved from academia.edu/4586391/Domestication_of_plants_in_Maya_Lowlands
The article provides a summary of botany insights into food species with wild populations or wild ancestors in the lowland Maya area that are currently associated with the traditional agriculture of the Yucatan Peninsula. It suggests that these species could have been the subject of human selection or agricultural manipulation by local human populations since at least 3400 BC.

Mayan Specific
[3] Coe, M. D. (1999). The Maya (5th ed.). Thames and Hudson.
This book, now in its 10th edition (we had access to the 5th), is a staple of Mayan archaeology and anthropology. Dr. Michael Coe (b. 1929 d.2019) is the former Professor Emeritus of Yale’s Anthropology Department and the husband of Dr. Sophie Coe.

[4] Benson, E. P. (1977). The Maya World. Crowell.

Aztec Specific
[5] Smith, M. E. (1996). The Aztecs.
Blackwell Publishers.

[6] Townsend, R. F. (2009). The Aztecs. Thames and Hudson.

Zapotec and Historical Oaxaca
Rodríguez, V. P., Morell-Hart, S., & King, S. M. (Eds.). (2024). Mesquite Pods to Mezcal: 10,000 Years of Oaxacan Cuisines. University of Texas Press.
This book is new and while it was not used in the development of this article, will be used for a future article on Oaxaca.

Modern Mexico
As previously mentioned, these do not define authenticity but give a broad perspective on ingredient utilization. They also are non-regional, whereas many cuisines in Mexico, like in other large countries, are regional due to climate’s influence on agriculture. The following two books are useful macro perspectives of modern Mexican cuisine, which we have often cited. For this reason, we have included in-line citations for quicker reference.
[7] Kennedy, D. (2014). The Essential Cuisines of Mexico: A Cookbook (eBook ed.).
Clarkson Potter.
[8] Bayless, R., Bayless, D. G., & Brownson, J. (1996). Rick Bayless Mexican Kitchen.
Scribner.

Mexico’s Current Agricultural Statistics
[9] Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera. (2023). Panorama agroalimentario 2023. Retrieved from
www.gob.mx/siap/documentos/panorama-de-la-frontera-agricola-de-mexico-por-representacion-estatal-sader-328205
  • Aztec Diet
  • Mayan Diet
  • Common Modern Table Sauces
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​The Aztec Diet
Aztec farmers inherited a knowledge of plants that had developed over thousands of years. Many more varieties of plants were originally domesticated in the Americas than in the Old World, and many of the immensely varied foods and dishes in modern Mexican cuisine today originated a long time before the Spanish arrived [6]. Knowledge of the early colonial Aztec diet is well known due to the chronicle of Bernal Diaz del Castillo, who accompanied Cortes which highlighted what Motechuhzoma was served and ate, as well as the illustrated work of Father Sahagun, written in the 1530s. Coe (2015) notes that Sahagun’s “all-encompassing curiosity and the diligence of his Aztec students and informants” resulted in an immense recorded knowledge of Aztec cuisine to the extent that we know more about it than all but the most recent and most literate societies [17].

Pre-Columbian Aztec Meals
Coe and Koontz (2002) note that “most Aztec people, from nobles to serfs, were very well fed and ate two to three daily meals [18] (Coe,2015 Location 2409). These meals predominantly consisted of maize, vegetables, fruits, and insects [6] with the first meal often consisted of a maize porridge flavored with honey or chile and an afternoon meal of tortilla or tamales with beans, a sauce of tomatoes, and chile for flavor [19], [20]. Unlike their modern counterparts, tamales contained no fat or grease [17].

Pre-Columbian Aztec Animals Foods
Animal protein was rare.
  • Domesticated animals included dogs, turkeys, and Musovy duck [5] [6]. Bees were also cultivated for honey [21].
  • Hunted animal bones found in Aztec domestic trash deposits were predominantly deer, rabbit, iguana, dog, turkey, and fowl of different types [5] [21]. For those near fresh water, fish. frogs, axolotis (a type of water salamander), acocil a (type of crayfish), were also consumed [5].
  • Insects including ants, grasshoppers, maguey worms, and jumil bugs were observed by early Spanish explorers to be widespread [5] [19]. This, hypothesized Smith (1996), may be due to their high protein content and ease of harvesting in large numbers.

Pre-Columbian Aztec Plant Foods
Beyond maize, beans and squash, cultivated fruits included mamey, white and black zapotes, chirimoyas, guavas, custard apples, pitaya cactus, nopal, tomatoes, avocado and several squash types [5] [6].
  • The Aztecs chewed gum (chicle), bitumen, and other natural gums to clean their teeth [6].
  • Wild Vegetables included various mushrooms and fungi, including Huitlacoche (corn smut). For more on Huitlacoche: Kenyon, C. (2020, October 31). Edible Corn Mushroom Huitlacoche. The Spruce Eats. Retrieved from thespruceeats.com/what-is-huitlacoche-or-cuitlacoche-2342705
  • Tecuitlatl (blue-green spirulina algae), harvested from the surface of the lakes using fine nets, was a source of protein [5] [19]. For more the modern version of this dietary staple: DeRenzo, N. (2021, January 12). How Mexico is reclaiming spirulina. BBC Travel. Retrieved from bbc.com/travel/article/20210111-how-mexico-is-reclaiming-spirulina
  • Herbs (Coe, 2015 Location 2817): Kunth’s onion and other southern-ranging species of the genus Allium, garlic vine’s (Mansoa alliacea) fragrant leaves, mesquite, popcorn flower (Plagiobothrys fulvus campestris), avocado leaf, and pineapple and tangerine sage (Salvia elegans) [6].
  • Spices: Chenopodium coriander, sage, vanilla [6]
The Mayan Diet
For a technical perspective Archaeological Findings on the Mayan diet:
Lentz, D. L. (1991). Maya Diets of the Rich and Poor: Paleoethnobotanical Evidence from Copan. Latin American Antiquity, 2(3), 269–287. www.jstor.org/stable/972172

Pre-Columbian Mayan Meals
  • Diego de Landa, Spanish Franciscan priest and bishop of Yucatán described the diet of the sixteenth-century Maya as: “In the evening they ate stews of vegetables and deer meat, fish, or the meat of wild or tame birds. For special feasts they had roasted fowl, bread, and a drink made from cacao [4].
  • Salsa, a sauce of ground dried chile and water, was eaten by the Mayans. Tortillas were dipped into it for flavor.

Pre-Columbian Mayan Animals Foods
Meat was not a significant part of the Mesoamerica diet.
  • Major livestock: Turkey, dog and rabbit.
  • Major hunted animals: Deer, iguana, manatee, armadillo, tapir, peccary, monkey, guinea pig, turtle, and types of fowl [3][4].
  • Fish sources included freshwater fish and ocean resources of fish, shrimp, and shellfish like conch.
Common Modern Table Sauces
“Sauce”
Common ​Ingredients
Production Method
Salsa
(Table sauce)
Tomatoes (salsa roja) or tomatillo (salsa verde), chile, onions, garlic, cilantro
​
Roasting and blending of ingredients
​
Guacamole
​(Table sauce)​
Avocado, Tomatoes, onions, chile, cilantro, lime juice, salt
​
Chopping and mixing of ingredients
​
Pico de Gallo
​(Table sauce)
​
Tomatoes, onions, chile, cilantro, lime juice, salt
​
Chopping and mixing of ingredients
Salsa macha
​
Dried chiles, garlic, salt, nuts and seeds
​
Finely chopped and fried in oil
​

​For more on the historical record,
Götz, C. M., & Emery, K. F. (Eds.). (2013). The Archaeology of Mesoamerican Animals (Chapter 7: Animal Economies in Prehispanic Southern Mexico). Lockwood Press. archaeology.sites.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/187/2016/09/Animal-Economies-in-Prehispanic-Southern-Mexico-2013-Lapham-etal.pdf
Pre-Columbian Plant foods
Other cultivated Crops included [4]:
  • Fruits: breadnut, hog plum, nance plum, soursop, mammee apple, papaya, pineapple, pitahayas/pataya.
  • Tubers: Monstera (Xanthosoma violaceum) particularly the starchy root.

For more on monstera usage: Heindel, T. (2012). The mystery of Malanga: Possible roles of Xanthosoma violaceum in ancient Maya diet, culture, and agriculture.
academia.edu/45108742/The_Mystery_of_Malanga_Possible_Roes_of_Xanthosoma_Violaceum_in_Ancient_Maya_Diet_Culture_and_Agriculture


Other Herbs and Spices
  • Canella (cinnamon bark, wild cinnamon, and white cinnamon)
  • Garlic vine

Modern Mexico
Mexican food is as diverse as the multitude of native and immigrant groups and cultures that make up the country. While defining a cuisine is non-concrete, as states like California, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona were part of Mexico until the mid 1800’s. For the premise of this article, we reference both the pre-colonial civilizations and modern-day food-systems, with the definition falling somewhere in-between.

Fruits

  • Tomato
  • Tomatillos/Tomate verde
<
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Tomato/Jitomate (Solanum lycopersicum)
Tomatl, in Nahuatl, its name means something round and plump. Coe, (2015) notes that given this rough descriptor, examination of the historical text requires considering who is eating it and where. For example, tomatillo species (Physalis philadelphica and Physalis ixocarpa) and tomatoe (Solanum lycopersicum) may be called tomatoes.

Significant species and cultivars
Main variety: Roma tomatoes. Round and cherry types are also important [48].

Cocktail Usage
  • Pair with: Vodka, Tequila, Shochu
  • Form Factor: Fresh, Canned Juice

History of domestication [49]
  • The ancestor of the S. lycopersicum L. var. cerasiforme (SLC) in South America is hypothesized by Razifard et al. (2020) to have arisen by non-human means and then spread to Peru then northwards. The common cultivated tomato is believed to have emerged 7,000 years ago in Mexico.
  • Italians started growing tomatoes in 1550 and extensively cultivated them by the 18th century [50].

For more on tomato genetics:
Razifard, H., Ramos, A., Della Valle, A. L., Bodary, C., Goetz, E., Manser, E. J., Li, X., Zhang, L., Visa, S., Tieman, D., van der Knaap, E., & Caicedo, A. L. (2020). Genomic evidence for complex History of domestication of the cultivated tomato in Latin America. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 37(4), 1118-1132. doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msaa266

Culinary Usage Examples
  • Historically, beyond being consumed fresh or as an accoutrement, it was mixed with chiles to create sauces (salsa) and used as tamale filling. The differentiation between tomatoes and tomatillos usage is unclear. Coe (2015 Location 877) notes differences in ecological niches, as tomatillos generally grow better where tomatoes do not.
  • The first Neapolitan cookbook featuring tomatoes was published in 1837 (Coe, 2015 Location 891).
  • Bayless (1996) and Kennedy (2014) utilize tomatoes fresh, simmered in sauces and combined with onions, chile and often garlic, as well as using comal-roasted and lightly charred tomatoes for salsa.

​
Tomatillos/Tomate verde
(Physalis philadelphica and
Physalis ixocarpa)

Significant species and cultivars [51 [52]
Physalis philadelphica and Physalis ixocarpa are designated species due to morphological differences. However, no clear delineation exists between species and substantial hybridization. Due to this, cultivars have been divided by color, and sub-cultivars are found within each color. These include:
  • Green tomatillos with cultivars including Toma Verde, Miltomate, and Verde Puebla
  • Purple with cultivars including “Purple” and “Purple de Milpa”
  • Yellow with cultivars including “Mexican strain” and “Pineapple”.

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings: Vodka, Tequila, or Shochu
  • Form Factor: Fresh, Canned Juice

History of domestication
Archeological evidence of domestication was found in Tehuacan caves dating to 825-1225 AD, and “something vaguely described as tomato tissue” was found dating to 800 BCE [20].

Primary Growing Areas (2022 tonnes)
  • Sinaloa (northwest region): 153,314 t.
  • Zacatecas (northwest region): 93,705 t.
  • Jalisco (central-west region): 88,583 2022 t.

Culinary Usage Examples
  • The specific historical usage of tomatillo by Mayans and Aztecs is unclear due to the interchangeable language used by the Spanish during recording of these fruits, though like today it can be used similarly (Coe, 2015).
  • While both Bayless (1996) and Kennedy (2014) note the similarities in the preparation of tomatillo and tomato (fresh, simmered, roasted, as noted in the “tomato” section), Bayless does specifically mention that the tangier flavor works well with Serrano chile.
  • Pineapple
  • Papaya
  • Sugar Apple
  • Sapote/Chico
  • Soursop
<
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​Pineapple/Piña (Ananas comosus)
Significant species and cultivars
In Mexico, the primary cultivar is Smooth Cayenne [39].
  • Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings: Brandy, Shochu, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, or Vodka.
  • Form Factor: Fresh, Canned Juice like Jumex

History of Domestication
Pineapple originates in the Northern Amazon, is believed to be domesticated in the region 3000 years ago, then spread to Mesoamerica as of 2500 years ago [40].
Mexico’s Market Significance (in 2022)
9th largest global producer (1,251,094 t.)

Primary Growing Area (2022 tonnes)
  • Veracruz (south-southeast region): 838,195 t.
  • Oaxaca (south-southeast region): 167,895
  • Culinary Usage Examples
  • No specific historical usage cases were found beyond that of cultivation and fresh fruit consumption.
  • Modern culinary examples were provided in abundance by Kennedy (2014), including Tepache which is a fermented pineapple drink that combines pineapple with clove, allspice, cinnamon, piloncillo (raw sugar), and light beer (Kennedy, 2014, Location 9957). Also proposed is a pineapple atole (Kennedy, 2014, Location 10114). Pineapple vinegar combines over-ripe pineapple and sugar and is then left in a sunny, warm spot to ferment (Kennedy, 2014, Location 10935). Lentils with Pineapple and Plantain, which is combined with the other aromatics of tomato, garlic, white onion, and pineapple to season lentils and plantains (Kennedy, 2014, Location 3783).
Papaya (Papaya)
Significant species and cultivars [37]

The two principal varieties of papayas
•Solo papaya are small in size, and the primary cultivars are Kapoho, Sunrise, SunUp, and Rainbow.
•Mexican papaya are large in size, and the primary cultivar is Maradol.
•Cocktail Usage
Base Spirit Pairings: Brandy, Shochu, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, or Vodka.
•Form Factor: Raw, Juiced

History of Domestication
Mayan Cultivated crop (Coe 2015 Location 2913) with potential human selection or some degree of agricultural manipulation by local human populations of the Yucatan since at least 3400 BC [2]. There currently is a wider variance in the genetics of the Yucatan wild population compared to other regions [38]. This may indicate a source of origin, though significant deforestation in Mexico may skew these numbers.

Mexico’s Market Significance
5th largest global producer and largest exporter (1,196,301 tonnes in 2022).
Primary Growing Areas (2022 tonnes)
•Oaxaca (south-southeast region): 367,153 t.
•Colima (west-central region):
199,920 t.
•Chiapas (south-southeast region): 157,788 t.

Culinary examples
No specific examples were found besides the general usage cases.
​Sugar Apple/ Anona/ Saramuyo (Annona squamosa)

Significant species and cultivars
  • ‘Thai Lessard’ (a green type)
  • ‘Purple’ or ‘Red’, ‘Kampong Mauve’ (purplish-red types)
  • A seedless type known under various names, ‘Cuban Seedless’ and ‘Brazilian Seedless’

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairing: Brandy, Shochu, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, Vodka
  • Form Factor: Raw (however the skin and seeds can be an irritant if ingested)

History of Domestication
Domestication may have started, with potential human selection or some degree of agricultural manipulation by local human populations in Yucatan since at least 3400 BC [2]. Its name Ts’ almuy” is of Mayan origin.

Mexico’s Market Significance
[44]Yucatán produced 386 tons in 2016.

Culinary Usage Examples
Has a white pulp which is eaten fresh. It is also used to produce liqueurs, ice creams, desserts and syrups [44].
​Sapote/Sapodilla/Chico (Manilkara zapota)
Sapote from Nahuatl tzapotl

Significant species and “Superior” fruit cultivars are available: `Prolific,’ `Brown Sugar,’ `Modello,’ and `Russel [45]’

Cocktail Usage
•Base Spirit Pairing: Brandy, Shochu, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, Vodka
•Form factor: Use fresh

History of Domestication
It is believed to originate in Southern Mexico, in particular the Petenes mangroves ecoregion of the Yucatán, where it is a sub-dominant plant species.

Primary Growing Areas [47]
•1,500 ha are devoted to fruit production, mainly in the states of Campeche and Veracruz.
•Gulf and Pacific coasts, Chiapas, the Yucatan peninsula and the Great Peten region neighboring Belize and Guatemala

Culinary Usage Examples
No specific usages were found outside of the general usages of fruit previously mentioned.
Soursop/Guanábana/Anonáceas(Annona muricata)

Mexico’s Market Significance
9th largest producer (3,461,766 tonnes in 2022)

Primary Growing Areas
(2022 tonnes)
  • Sinaloa (northwest region): 638,699 t.
  • San Luis Potosí (west-central region): 446,295 2022 t.
  • Michoacán (west-central region): 325,972 2022 t.


Significant species and cultivars
  • Annona reticulata: Custard Apple
  • Annona cherimola: Also known as Cherimoya or chirimuya by the Inca

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings: Brandy, Shochu, Rum, Mezcal, Tequila, Whiskey, or Vodka.
  • Form Factor: Fresh, Canned Juice like Jumex

History of Domestication
Soursop was cultivated by the Maya [4], and human selection or some degree of agricultural manipulation by local human populations in Yucatan has occurred since at least 3400 BC [2].

Mexico’s Market Significance [41]
30,790 tonnes annually

Primary Growing Areas
(2019 tonnes)
  • Nayarit: 23,230 t.
  • Colima: 2,832 t.
  • Michoacán: 2,781 t.

Culinary Usage Examples
While no specific modern examples were provided in the reference material, it is a commercially available beverage.
Pexels/Engin-Akyurt
AdobeStock /sissoupitch
AdobeStock-zsuriel

Vegetable: Nopalitos

​Nopalitos/Prickly Pear (Opuntia spp.)
The name nopal derives from the Nahuatl word nohpalli [34].

Significant Modern Cultivars
Farmed nopales are most often of the species Opuntia ficus-indica or Opuntia matudae, although the pads of almost all Opuntia species are edible [35]. Twenty species are cultivated with different degrees of domestication, and there are more than 900 named cultivars [36].

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairing: Gin, Shochu, Rum (unaged), Mezcal, Tequila, Vodka
  • Form Factor: Use preserves as a garnish for savory cocktails.

History of Domestication
Molecular evidence indicates that two lineages, cylindrical-stemmed and flat-stemmed prickly pears, diverged in South America before migration [36].

Commercial Significance in Mexico
Primary Growing Location (in 2022)
  • Morelos (central region) 404,764 tonnes
  • Ciudad de México (central region) 209,539 tonnes
  • México Centro: 84,647 tonnes

Culinary Usage Examples
  • Historically, the Aztecs cultivated nopalitos in the Valley of Mexico and consumed them as a vegetable once the spines were removed [5]. The prickly pear fruit was also eaten [6]. The cochineal insects that grew on the nopal were also cultivated for their intense red color and used as a textile dye [6].
  • In modern culinary usages, Kennedy (2014) recommends blanching the meat found in the paddles.

For more on nopalitos and cochineal production
Chávez-Moreno, C. K., Tecante, A., & Casas, A. (2009). The Opuntia (Cactaceae) and Dactylopius (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae) in Mexico: a historical perspective of use, interaction and distribution. Biodiversity and Conservation, 18, 3337-3355. www.researchgate.net/profile/Alejandro-Casas/publication/225327704_The_Opuntia_Cactaceae_and_Dactylopius_Hemiptera_Dactylopiidae_in_Mexico_A_historical_perspective_of_use_interaction_and_distribution/

​Herbs

  • Culantro
  • Epazote
  • Mexican Oregano
<
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Culantro aka Mexican coriander
(Eryngium foetidum)

Significant species and cultivars
N/A

Cocktail Usage
Base Spirit Pairing:
Gin, Shochu, Rum (unaged), Mezcal, Tequila, Vodka
Form Factor for cocktail: Fresh muddled.

Similar in flavor to cilantro, there is a strange modern paradigm. Culantro, known in Vietnam as ngò gai (thorny coriander, long-leafed coriander, or saw-toothed mint), is native to the Americas and is commonly served with Pho [56]. Cilantro/coriander (Coriandrum sativum) is native to Asia but is more commonly used in modern Mexican food.

History of Domestication
Eryngium foetidum ranges from tropical forests in Central America to Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) and Bolivia [57].

Mexico’s Market Significance and Growing Regions: No Data Available

Culinary Usage Examples
•Historically, it was used by the Aztecs to make Ahuaca-mulli, “See avocado.” This, translated to Spanish, is guacamole.
•In modern cuisine, it is often substituted for cilantro. For this reason, it can be used wherever cilantro is used. For example, Kennedy (2014) pairs cilantro with the following, which are sometimes in combination: high-acid fruits like lime, tomato, or orange; chili like jalapenos; onion and garlic.

For more insight into culantro
Filippone, P. T. (2023, September 13). What Is Culantro? A Guide to Buying, Cooking, and Storing Culantro. The Spruce Eats. Retrieved from
www.thespruceeats.com/is-culantro-the-same-as-cilantro-1807011
Shutterstock
Epazote (Chenopodium ambrosioides)
Epazote derives from Nahuatl [58].

Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings: Gin, Shochu, Rum (unaged), Mezcal, Tequila, or Vodka.
  • Form Factor: Muddled fresh

Native range
Tropical climates of Central America, South America, and southern Mexico [59].
Mexico’s Market Significance and Growing Regions: No Data Available

Culinary Usage Examples
  • Mayans and Aztecs used it to flavor beans and stews [10] [60].
  • Kennedy (2015) suggests using epazote to flavor black beans, soups, and fillings for quesadillas (Kennedy 2015 Location 10749).

Mexican oregano (Lippia graveolens)
Cocktail Usage
  • Base Spirit Pairings: Gin, Shochu, Rum (unaged), Mezcal, Tequila, or Vodka.
  • Form Factor: Muddled fresh or used as a syrup dried.

Native range
Southwestern United States through Mesoamerica.

Mexico’s Market Significance and Growing Regions: No Data Available

Culinary Usage Examples
Similar flavor to oregano (Origanum vulgare [65].
  • Coe (2015) mentions its Mayan usage in combination with toasted squash seeds, chili water, epazote [23].
  • Kennedy suggests using oregano in a multitude of meat dishes in combination with onions, garlic, chile and sometimes other herbs. In ensalada de nopalitos and ensalada de calabacita, it is used in combination with lime (Kennedy, 2015, Location 4446).
Unsplash/ Montatip Lilitsanong
CMYK MAKER- shutterstock
ExQuisine/AdobeStock

​Sources and Suggested Reading

  • Part 1. 
  • Part 2.
<
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1. Gepts, P. (1998). Origin and Evolution of Common Bean: Past Events and Recent Trends. HortScience HortSci, 33(7), 1124-1130. Retrieved Mar 23, 2024, from https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.33.7.1124

2. Wikipedia contributors. (2024, March 4). Olmecs. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13:51, March 23, 2024, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php title=Olmecs&oldid=12118378314

3. Wikipedia contributors. (2024, January 11). Zapotec civilization. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:19, March 23, 2024, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zapotec_civilization&oldid=1194988407

4. Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2020, August 28). Aztec Empire Timeline. Encyclopedia Britannica. www.britannica.com/summary/Aztec-Empire-Timeline

5. Coe, S. D. (2015). America’s First Cuisines (e-book ed.). University of Texas Press.

6. Colunga-GarcíaMarín, P., & Zizumbo-Villarreal, D. (2004). Domestication of plants in Maya lowlands. Economic botany, 58(1), S101-S110. Retrieved from academia.edu/4586391/Domestication_of_plants_in_Maya_Lowlands

7. Coe, M. D. (1999). The Maya (5th ed.). Thames and Hudson.

8. Benson, E. P. (1977). The Maya World. Crowell.Smith, M. E. (1996). The Aztecs. Blackwell Publishers. pp. 60-65.Townsend, R. F. (2009). The Aztecs. Thames and Hudson.

9. Kennedy, D. (2014). The Essential Cuisines of Mexico: A Cookbook (eBook ed.). Clarkson Potter.

10. Bayless, R., Bayless, D. G., & Brownson, J. (1996). Rick Bayless Mexican Kitchen. Scribner.

11. Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera. (2023). Panorama agroalimentario 2023. Retrieved from www.gob.mx/siap/documentos/panorama-de-la-frontera-agricola-de-mexico-por-representacion-estatal-sader-328205

12. Coe, S. D. (2015). America’s First Cuisines (e-book ed.). Chapter 2: New World Staples. University of Texas Press.

13. Benz, B.F. (1986). Taxonomy and Evolution of Mexican Maize (doctoral dissertation). University of Wisconsin, Madison. https://www.proquest.com/openview/b2847a21a85993887fca87f0c086502d/

14. Wikipedia contributors. (2024, March 17). Landrace. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:31, March 26, 2024, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Landrace&oldid=1214251041

15. Piperno, D. R., Ranere, A. J., Holst, I., Iriarte, J., & Dickau, R. (2009). Starch grain and phytolith evidence for early ninth millennium B.P. maize from the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(13), 5019–5024.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0812525106

16. Iowa State University. (2022, February 2). Scientists take major step in understanding domestication of corn. [News release]. Retrieved from
www.news.iastate.edu/news/2022/02/02/teosinte2022

17. Los Angeles Public Library International Languages Department. (2018, October 4). Pre-Columbian America: Food. Central Library. https://www.lapl.org/collections-resources/blogs/lapl/pre-columbian-america-food

18. Coe, S. D. (2015). America’s First Cuisines (e-book ed.). Chapter 3: New World Produce. University of Texas Press.

19. Gepts, P. (1998). Origin and Evolution of Common Bean: Past Events and Recent Trends. HortScience HortSci, 33(7), 1124-1130. Retrieved Mar 23, 2024, from https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.33.7.1124

20. Fedick, S. L., & Santiago, L. S. (2022). Large variation in availability of Maya food plant sources during ancient droughts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(1), e2115657118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2115657118

21. Zarrillo, S., Gaikwad, N., Lanaud, C., Powis, T., Viot, C., Lesur, I., Fouet, O., Argout, X., Guichoux, E., Salin, F. and Solorzano, R.L., 2018. The use and domestication of Theobroma cacao during the mid-Holocene in the upper Amazon. Nature ecology & evolution, 2(12), pp.1879-1888. Retrieved from: academia.edu/39637452/The_use_and_domestication_of_Theobroma_cacao_during_the_mid_Holocene_in_the_upper_Amazon_Main_Text
Hawaii Invasive Species Council. (n.d.). Long-thorn kiawe (Prosopis juliflora). [Website]. Retrieved from https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc/info/invasive-species-profiles/long-thorn-kiawe/22. Coe, S. D. (2015). America’s First Cuisines (e-book ed.). Chapter 9: Solid Maya Breadstuffs. University of Texas Press.

23. Coe ,S. D. (2015). America’s First Cuisines (e-book ed.). Chapter 6: Aztec Cooks and Menus. University of Texas Press.

24. Maestri, N. (2020, January 21). The History and Domestication of Agave: From Textiles to Tequila. ThoughtCo. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/domestication-history-of-agave-americana-169410

25. Kistler, L., & Shapiro, B. (2011). Ancient DNA confirms a local origin of domesticated chenopod in eastern North America. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38(12), 3549-3554. https://pgl.soe.ucsc.edu/kistler11.pdf

26. Los Angeles Public Library International Languages Department. (2018, October 4). Pre-Columbian America: Food. Central Library. https://www.lapl.org/collections-resources/blogs/lapl/pre-columbian-america-food

27. Secretaría de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural [Mexico]. (2023, February 18). Dulce o salado, disfrutemos todos del camote [Sweet or salty, let ‘s all enjoy the sweet potato]. Retrieved from gob.mx/agricultura/articulos/dulce-o-salado-disfrutemos-todos-del-camote

28. Wikipedia contributors. (2024, March 24). Sweet potato. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 03:21, March 27, 2024, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sweet_potato&oldid=1215358233

29. Maestri, N. (2020, January 21). The History and Domestication of Agave: From Textiles to Tequila. ThoughtCo. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/domestication-history-of-agave-americana-169410

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