Photo By: Ahmed Noor Khan /Shutterstock
Flower Aroma Compounds
The aroma of flowers is derived from volatile aromatic compounds that are believed to attract pollinators, with a specific set of compounds attracting a specific type of pollinator [1] [2] . There are commonalities, however, as linalool and benzaldehyde are found in over 50% of the investigated plant families [3].
In beverages, flowers can be used as aromatic descriptors or as ingredients. As noted in the July 2023 issue in the article entitled “A Guide to Cocktail Recipe Development”,(www.hawaiibevguide.com/flavor-pairings-and-recipe-development.html) recipes can be developed through:
In this issue, we have compiled the data for common culinary flowers, as well as a few flowers associated with Hawaii. We have also found an extensive list of culinary flowers used in the Mediterranean Basin. Which can be found at
Motti, R.; Paura, B.; Cozzolino, A.; Falco, B.d. Edible Flowers Used in Some Countries of the Mediterranean Basin: An Ethnobotanical Overview. Plants 2022, 11, 3272. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11233272
For more flower aromatic compounds correlation to pollinators
[1] Roxane Delle-Vedove, Bertrand Schatz, Mathilde Dufay, Understanding intraspecific variation of floral scent in light of evolutionary ecology, Annals of Botany, Volume 120, Issue 1, July 2017, Pages 1–20,
https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcx055
[2] Schiestl, F. P. (2010). The evolution of floral scent and insect chemical communication. Ecology letters, 13(5), 643-656. Retrieved from: www.researchgate.net/profile/Florian-Schiestl/publication/42587818_The_evolution_of_floral_scent_and_insect_chemical_communication/links/5c3c5f70458515a4c7248e49/The-evolution-of-floral-scent-and-insect-chemical-communication.pdf
[3] Knudsen, J.T. & Gershenzon, J. (2006). The chemical diversity of floral scent. In: Biology of Floral Scent (eds Dudareva, N. & Pichersky, E.). Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, pp. 27–52
www.jstor.org/stable/4354511?read-now=1
In beverages, flowers can be used as aromatic descriptors or as ingredients. As noted in the July 2023 issue in the article entitled “A Guide to Cocktail Recipe Development”,(www.hawaiibevguide.com/flavor-pairings-and-recipe-development.html) recipes can be developed through:
- Food pairing: Flavors are intensified by mixing ingredients with similar chemical compounds.
- Food bridging: Two ingredients that do not share a strong molecular or empirical affinity are bridged through another ingredient or a path of non-repeating ingredients within a network of ingredient affinities
- The avoidance of food-bridging and food-pairing
In this issue, we have compiled the data for common culinary flowers, as well as a few flowers associated with Hawaii. We have also found an extensive list of culinary flowers used in the Mediterranean Basin. Which can be found at
Motti, R.; Paura, B.; Cozzolino, A.; Falco, B.d. Edible Flowers Used in Some Countries of the Mediterranean Basin: An Ethnobotanical Overview. Plants 2022, 11, 3272. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11233272
For more flower aromatic compounds correlation to pollinators
[1] Roxane Delle-Vedove, Bertrand Schatz, Mathilde Dufay, Understanding intraspecific variation of floral scent in light of evolutionary ecology, Annals of Botany, Volume 120, Issue 1, July 2017, Pages 1–20,
https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcx055
[2] Schiestl, F. P. (2010). The evolution of floral scent and insect chemical communication. Ecology letters, 13(5), 643-656. Retrieved from: www.researchgate.net/profile/Florian-Schiestl/publication/42587818_The_evolution_of_floral_scent_and_insect_chemical_communication/links/5c3c5f70458515a4c7248e49/The-evolution-of-floral-scent-and-insect-chemical-communication.pdf
[3] Knudsen, J.T. & Gershenzon, J. (2006). The chemical diversity of floral scent. In: Biology of Floral Scent (eds Dudareva, N. & Pichersky, E.). Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, pp. 27–52
www.jstor.org/stable/4354511?read-now=1
How to use the following charts
The charts provide generalizations about the relative percentage of aromatic compounds that exist in common spices as found by Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), Gas Chromatography Olfactory (GC-O) or the analytical method listed. This approach was taken because of the common variations in aroma compounds attributed to differences like environmental factors, plant varieties, cultivation practices, harvesting stage, method of storage and method of extraction. It should be noted that high concentrations of aromatic compounds generally but do not always proportionally correlate with flavor influence as some compounds can be more potent than others. We, however, have yet to find a resource that provides this information. For more on this concept:
W. Grosch, Evaluation of the Key Odorants of Foods by Dilution Experiments, Aroma Models and Omission, Chemical Senses, Volume 26, Issue 5, June 2001, Pages 533–545, https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/26.5.533
W. Grosch, Evaluation of the Key Odorants of Foods by Dilution Experiments, Aroma Models and Omission, Chemical Senses, Volume 26, Issue 5, June 2001, Pages 533–545, https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/26.5.533
Aroma compounds and their descriptors
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Chamomile/German chamomile
(Matricaria recutita)
Image by gitusik/AdobeStock
Studies on M. recutita
Süfer, Ö., & Bozok, F. (2020). Characterization of essential oil from Matricaria sevanensis by microwave-assisted distillation. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 140, 253-261.
www.researchgate.net/publication/335756384_Characterization_of_Essential_Oil_from_Matricaria_sevanensis_by_Microwave_Assisted_Distillation
Salamon I, Ibraliu A, Kryvtsova M. Essential Oil Content and Composition of the Chamomile Inflorescences (Matricaria recutita L.) Belonging to Central Albania. Horticulturae. 2023; 9(1):47. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9010047
Other Aroma Compounds
(Z)-β-Farnesene at 24.2% was found by Sufer et al 2020. It and its isomer (E)-β-Farnesene is also noted in the aforementioned literature cited by Lawrence.
For more insight
Lawrence, B. M. (2005). Progress in essential oils. Perfumer & Flavorist, 30(8), 56–61. https://img.perfumerflavorist.com/files/base/allured/all/document/2005/10/pf.PF_30_08_056_11.pdf
Lawrence, B. M. (2012). Progress in essential oils. Perfumer & Flavorist, 37(5), 54–59. https://img.perfumerflavorist.com/files/base/allured/all/document/2012/04/pf.PF_37_05_054_07.pdf
Lawrence, B. M. (2014). Progress in essential oils. Perfumer & Flavorist, 39(11), 41–48. https://img.perfumerflavorist.com/files/base/allured/all/document/2014/10/pf.PF_39_11_041_08.pdf
Süfer, Ö., & Bozok, F. (2020). Characterization of essential oil from Matricaria sevanensis by microwave-assisted distillation. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 140, 253-261.
www.researchgate.net/publication/335756384_Characterization_of_Essential_Oil_from_Matricaria_sevanensis_by_Microwave_Assisted_Distillation
Salamon I, Ibraliu A, Kryvtsova M. Essential Oil Content and Composition of the Chamomile Inflorescences (Matricaria recutita L.) Belonging to Central Albania. Horticulturae. 2023; 9(1):47. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9010047
Other Aroma Compounds
(Z)-β-Farnesene at 24.2% was found by Sufer et al 2020. It and its isomer (E)-β-Farnesene is also noted in the aforementioned literature cited by Lawrence.
For more insight
Lawrence, B. M. (2005). Progress in essential oils. Perfumer & Flavorist, 30(8), 56–61. https://img.perfumerflavorist.com/files/base/allured/all/document/2005/10/pf.PF_30_08_056_11.pdf
Lawrence, B. M. (2012). Progress in essential oils. Perfumer & Flavorist, 37(5), 54–59. https://img.perfumerflavorist.com/files/base/allured/all/document/2012/04/pf.PF_37_05_054_07.pdf
Lawrence, B. M. (2014). Progress in essential oils. Perfumer & Flavorist, 39(11), 41–48. https://img.perfumerflavorist.com/files/base/allured/all/document/2014/10/pf.PF_39_11_041_08.pdf
Other species
Roman Chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile/Anthemis nobilis)
This species may be more popular as an essential oil rather than a culinary ingredient. We also could not find open-source information at the time of this writing. For more insight:
Klimes, I., & Lamparsky, D. (2010). Unsaturated components in the essential oil of Anthemis nobilis L. (Roman chamomile). Perfumer & Flavorist, 35(3), 54–59. https://www.perfumerflavorist.com/fragrance/ingredients/article/21861596/unsaturated-components-in-the-essential-oil-of-anthemis-nobilis-l-roman-chamomile
Lawrence, B. M. (2009). Progress in essential oils. Perfumer & Flavorist, 34(4), 54–61. www.perfumerflavorist.com/fragrance/ingredients/article/21858707/progress-in-essential-oils
Lawrence, B. M., & Reynolds, J. (2010). Unsaturated components in the essential oil of Anthemis nobilis L. (Roman chamomile). Perfumer & Flavorist, 35(3), 48–53. https://img.perfumerflavorist.com/files/base/allured/all/document/2009/03/pf.PF_34_04_054_03.pdf
Inflorescences (Matricaria recutita L.) Belonging to Central Albania. Horticulturae. 2023; 9(1):47.
https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9010047
Roman Chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile/Anthemis nobilis)
This species may be more popular as an essential oil rather than a culinary ingredient. We also could not find open-source information at the time of this writing. For more insight:
Klimes, I., & Lamparsky, D. (2010). Unsaturated components in the essential oil of Anthemis nobilis L. (Roman chamomile). Perfumer & Flavorist, 35(3), 54–59. https://www.perfumerflavorist.com/fragrance/ingredients/article/21861596/unsaturated-components-in-the-essential-oil-of-anthemis-nobilis-l-roman-chamomile
Lawrence, B. M. (2009). Progress in essential oils. Perfumer & Flavorist, 34(4), 54–61. www.perfumerflavorist.com/fragrance/ingredients/article/21858707/progress-in-essential-oils
Lawrence, B. M., & Reynolds, J. (2010). Unsaturated components in the essential oil of Anthemis nobilis L. (Roman chamomile). Perfumer & Flavorist, 35(3), 48–53. https://img.perfumerflavorist.com/files/base/allured/all/document/2009/03/pf.PF_34_04_054_03.pdf
Inflorescences (Matricaria recutita L.) Belonging to Central Albania. Horticulturae. 2023; 9(1):47.
https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9010047
Gardenia (Gardenia spp.)
photo by: AdobeStock/
aki_insta212
Studies
Zhang, N.; Luo, M.; He, L.; Yao, L. Chemical Composition of Essential Oil from Flower of ‘Shanzhizi’ (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis) and Involvement of Serotonergic System in Its Anxiolytic Effect. Molecules 2020, 25, 4702. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25204702
Zhang, N.; Bian, Y.; Yao, L. Essential Oils of Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis and Gardenia jasminoides f. longicarpa Z.W. Xie & M. Okada Flowers: Chemical Characterization and Assessment of Anti-Inflammatory Effects in Alveolar Macrophage. Pharmaceutics 2022, 14, 966.
https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics14050966
Zhang, N.; Luo, M.; He, L.; Yao, L. Chemical Composition of Essential Oil from Flower of ‘Shanzhizi’ (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis) and Involvement of Serotonergic System in Its Anxiolytic Effect. Molecules 2020, 25, 4702. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25204702
Zhang, N.; Bian, Y.; Yao, L. Essential Oils of Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis and Gardenia jasminoides f. longicarpa Z.W. Xie & M. Okada Flowers: Chemical Characterization and Assessment of Anti-Inflammatory Effects in Alveolar Macrophage. Pharmaceutics 2022, 14, 966.
https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics14050966
Elderflower (Sambucus nigra)
photo by: AdobeStock/
nikolaydonetsk
Studies
Bajer, T., Bajerová, P., & Ventura, K. (2017). Effect of harvest and drying on composition of volatile profile of elderflowers (Sambucus nigra) from wild. Natural Product Communications, 12(12), https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1934578X1701201231
Kaack, K., Christensen, L. P., Hughes, M., & Eder, R. (2006). Relationship between sensory quality and volatile compounds of elderflower (Sambucus nigra L.) extracts. European Food Research and Technology, 223, 57-70. Retrieved from: https://findresearcher.sdu.dk/ws/portalfiles/portal/125720364/Poster_LMC_2005_Elderflower_aroma_extracts.pdf
Jørgensen, U., Hansen, M., Christensen, L. P., Jensen, K., & Kaack, K. (2000). Olfactory and quantitative analysis of aroma compounds in elder flower (Sambucus nigra L.) drink processed from five cultivars. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 48(6), 2376-2383.
For more insight
Ferreira, S. S., Silva, A. M., & Nunes, F. M. (2022). Sambucus nigra L. fruits and flowers: Chemical composition and related bioactivities. Food Reviews International, 38(6), 1237-1265. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/43920775/Sambucus_nigra_L_Fruits_and_Flowers_Chemical_Composition_and_Related_Bioactivities
Salvador, . C., Silvestre, A. J., & Rocha, S. M. (2018). Comprehensive Insight into the Elderflowers and Elderberries (Sambucus nigra L.) Mono and Sesquiterpenic Metabolites: Factors that Modulate Their Composition. Secondary Metabolites: Sources and Applications, 59. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/61808
Bajer, T., Bajerová, P., & Ventura, K. (2017). Effect of harvest and drying on composition of volatile profile of elderflowers (Sambucus nigra) from wild. Natural Product Communications, 12(12), https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1934578X1701201231
Kaack, K., Christensen, L. P., Hughes, M., & Eder, R. (2006). Relationship between sensory quality and volatile compounds of elderflower (Sambucus nigra L.) extracts. European Food Research and Technology, 223, 57-70. Retrieved from: https://findresearcher.sdu.dk/ws/portalfiles/portal/125720364/Poster_LMC_2005_Elderflower_aroma_extracts.pdf
Jørgensen, U., Hansen, M., Christensen, L. P., Jensen, K., & Kaack, K. (2000). Olfactory and quantitative analysis of aroma compounds in elder flower (Sambucus nigra L.) drink processed from five cultivars. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 48(6), 2376-2383.
For more insight
Ferreira, S. S., Silva, A. M., & Nunes, F. M. (2022). Sambucus nigra L. fruits and flowers: Chemical composition and related bioactivities. Food Reviews International, 38(6), 1237-1265. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/43920775/Sambucus_nigra_L_Fruits_and_Flowers_Chemical_Composition_and_Related_Bioactivities
Salvador, . C., Silvestre, A. J., & Rocha, S. M. (2018). Comprehensive Insight into the Elderflowers and Elderberries (Sambucus nigra L.) Mono and Sesquiterpenic Metabolites: Factors that Modulate Their Composition. Secondary Metabolites: Sources and Applications, 59. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/61808
Hibiscus/Roselle
(Hibiscus sabdariffa)
photo by: AdobeStock/
pakn
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Aroma Compounds
The studies on aromatic compounds in Hibiscus sabdariffa were highly variable in regards to which compound that were looked for via GCMS. Due to this, a table to compare the findings is unhelpful. As such, we present the following findings:
Gonzalez-Palomares et al. (2009) extracted hibiscus calyces obtained from Michoacan, Mexico with 30% ethanol and then spray dried into a powder at varying temperatures. The authors reported the findings in two parts:
Volatile compounds retained in the powder
Volatile compounds generated by chemical degradation of sugar derivatives
Suniarti et al. 2022 extracted hibiscus calyces obtained from Balai Tanaman Obat dan Aromatik (Balittro) Bogor, West Java, Indonesia, that were extracted by 70% ethanol and found that the primary organic acids were:
Inikpi et al. (2014) studied air-dried flowers from Lagos, Nigeria which were hydro-distilled and found that the primary contents of the essential oil were:
Avalos-Martínez et al. (2019) extracted air-dried calyces obtained from the experimental field of the Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit, Mexico with 98 °C distilled water, and examined the odor active values (OAV).
Other findings
While not reported in the experimental findings, many of the studies reported a high content of ascorbic acid.
The studies on aromatic compounds in Hibiscus sabdariffa were highly variable in regards to which compound that were looked for via GCMS. Due to this, a table to compare the findings is unhelpful. As such, we present the following findings:
Gonzalez-Palomares et al. (2009) extracted hibiscus calyces obtained from Michoacan, Mexico with 30% ethanol and then spray dried into a powder at varying temperatures. The authors reported the findings in two parts:
Volatile compounds retained in the powder
- p-Cymene (0.13% average)
- Limonene (1.66% average)
- Alpha-Terpinolene (0.08% average)
- Linalool (0.14% average)
- Ethyl hexadecanoate (1.69% average)
- Ethyl linoleate (0.62% average)
- Ethyl linoleolate (0.15% average)
- Benzaldehyde (0.26% average)
- Decanal (0.17% average)
- 4-Ethylguaiacol (0.07% average)
- Furfural (3.62% average)
Volatile compounds generated by chemical degradation of sugar derivatives
- Eugenol (0.18% average)
- cis-Linalool oxide (1.07% average)
- Furanic linalool oxide Z and E (0.42% average)
Suniarti et al. 2022 extracted hibiscus calyces obtained from Balai Tanaman Obat dan Aromatik (Balittro) Bogor, West Java, Indonesia, that were extracted by 70% ethanol and found that the primary organic acids were:
- Propanoic acid: 12.96%
- (2E)-5-Methyl, [2,3-D2] hexa-2,4-dieonic acid: 12.8%
- (9E)-9-Octadeconoic acid: 9.66%
Inikpi et al. (2014) studied air-dried flowers from Lagos, Nigeria which were hydro-distilled and found that the primary contents of the essential oil were:
- Hexadecanoic acid: 64.35%
- Linoleic acid: 22.7%
Avalos-Martínez et al. (2019) extracted air-dried calyces obtained from the experimental field of the Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit, Mexico with 98 °C distilled water, and examined the odor active values (OAV).
Other findings
While not reported in the experimental findings, many of the studies reported a high content of ascorbic acid.
Studies
Avalos-Martínez, E., Pino, J. A., Sáyago-Ayerdi, S., Sosa-Moguel, O., & Cuevas-Glory, L. (2019). Assessment of volatile compounds and sensory characteristics of Mexican hibiscus (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) calyces hot beverages. Journal of food science and technology, 56(1), 360-366. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6342777/
Suniarti, D. F., Suwandi, T., Putri, S. A., & Kurnia, D. (2022). Potential of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Calyx (Rosella) extract as antibacterial agent in dental disease: Phytochemical and chemical components profiling. Journal of advanced pharmaceutical technology & research, 13(3), 202–206. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9355063/
Gonzalez-Palomares, S., Estarrón-Espinosa, M., Gómez-Leyva, J. F., & Andrade-González, I. (2009). Effect of the temperature on the spray drying of roselle extracts (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.). Plant foods for human nutrition, 64(1), 62-67.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23663540_Effect_of_the_Temperature_on_the_Spray_Drying_of_Roselle_Extracts_Hibiscus_sabdariffa_L
Inikpi, E., Lawal, O. A., Ogunmoye, A. O., & Ogunwande, I. A. (2014). Volatile composition of the floral essential oil of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. from Nigeria. American Journal of Essential Oils and Natural Products, 2(2), 04-07. https://www.essencejournal.com/pdf/2014/vol2issue2/PartA/2-2-5-354.pdf
Avalos-Martínez, E., Pino, J. A., Sáyago-Ayerdi, S., Sosa-Moguel, O., & Cuevas-Glory, L. (2019). Assessment of volatile compounds and sensory characteristics of Mexican hibiscus (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) calyces hot beverages. Journal of food science and technology, 56(1), 360-366. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6342777/
Suniarti, D. F., Suwandi, T., Putri, S. A., & Kurnia, D. (2022). Potential of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Calyx (Rosella) extract as antibacterial agent in dental disease: Phytochemical and chemical components profiling. Journal of advanced pharmaceutical technology & research, 13(3), 202–206. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9355063/
Gonzalez-Palomares, S., Estarrón-Espinosa, M., Gómez-Leyva, J. F., & Andrade-González, I. (2009). Effect of the temperature on the spray drying of roselle extracts (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.). Plant foods for human nutrition, 64(1), 62-67.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23663540_Effect_of_the_Temperature_on_the_Spray_Drying_of_Roselle_Extracts_Hibiscus_sabdariffa_L
Inikpi, E., Lawal, O. A., Ogunmoye, A. O., & Ogunwande, I. A. (2014). Volatile composition of the floral essential oil of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. from Nigeria. American Journal of Essential Oils and Natural Products, 2(2), 04-07. https://www.essencejournal.com/pdf/2014/vol2issue2/PartA/2-2-5-354.pdf
Jasmine/Pikake/Sampaguita/ Arabian Jasmine
(Jasminum sambac)
Studies
Edris, A. E., Chizzola, R., & Franz, C. (2008). Isolation and characterization of the volatile aroma compounds from the concrete headspace and the absolute of Jasminum sambac (L.) Ait.(Oleaceae) flowers grown in Egypt. European Food Research and Technology, 226, 621-626. Retrieved from www.researchgate.net/publication/226381453_Isolation_and_characterization_of_the_volatile_aroma_compounds_from_the_concrete_headspace_and_the_absolute_of_Jasminum_sambac_L_Ait_Oleaceae_flowers_grown_in_Egypt
Braun, N. A., & Sim, S. (2012). Jasminum sambac flower absolutes from India and China–Geographic variations. Natural Product Communications, 7(5), https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1934578X1200700526
Zhang, J., Li, J., Wang, J., Sun, B., Liu, Y., & Huang, M. (2021). Characterization of aroma-active compounds in Jasminum sambac concrete by aroma extract dilution analysis and odour activity value. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 36(2), 197-206. Retrieved from: www.researchgate.net/publication/345980403_Characterization_of_aroma-active_compounds_in_Jasminum_sambac_concrete_by_aroma_extract_dilution_analysis_and_odour_activity_value
Edris, A. E., Chizzola, R., & Franz, C. (2008). Isolation and characterization of the volatile aroma compounds from the concrete headspace and the absolute of Jasminum sambac (L.) Ait.(Oleaceae) flowers grown in Egypt. European Food Research and Technology, 226, 621-626. Retrieved from www.researchgate.net/publication/226381453_Isolation_and_characterization_of_the_volatile_aroma_compounds_from_the_concrete_headspace_and_the_absolute_of_Jasminum_sambac_L_Ait_Oleaceae_flowers_grown_in_Egypt
Braun, N. A., & Sim, S. (2012). Jasminum sambac flower absolutes from India and China–Geographic variations. Natural Product Communications, 7(5), https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1934578X1200700526
Zhang, J., Li, J., Wang, J., Sun, B., Liu, Y., & Huang, M. (2021). Characterization of aroma-active compounds in Jasminum sambac concrete by aroma extract dilution analysis and odour activity value. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 36(2), 197-206. Retrieved from: www.researchgate.net/publication/345980403_Characterization_of_aroma-active_compounds_in_Jasminum_sambac_concrete_by_aroma_extract_dilution_analysis_and_odour_activity_value
Lavander
Image by AdobeStock/lenic
Image by AdobeStock/photohampster
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Studies
Shellie, R., Mondello, L., Marriott, P., & Dugo, G. (2002). Characterisation of lavender essential oils by using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry with correlation of linear retention indices and comparison with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A, 970(1-2), 225-234. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/22243864/Characterisation_of_lavender_essential_oils_by_using_gas_chromatography_mass_spectrometry_with_correlation_of_linear_retention_indices_and_comparison_with_comprehensive_two_dimensional_gas_chromatography
Dob, T., Dahmane, D., Agli, M., & Chelghoum, C. (2006). Essential oil composition of Lavandula stoechas. from Algeria. Pharmaceutical biology, 44(1), 60-64. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13880200500496421
Angioni, A., Barra, A., Coroneo, V., Dessi, S., & Cabras, P. (2006). Chemical composition, seasonal variability, and antifungal activity of Lavandula stoechas L. ssp. stoechas essential oils from stem/leaves and flowers. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 54(12), 4364-4370. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/13533352/Chemical_Composition_Seasonal_Variability_and_Antifungal_Activity_of_Lavandula_stoechas_L_ssp_stoechas_Essential_Oils_from_Stem_Leaves_and_Flowers
Kim, N. S., & Lee, D. S. (2002). Comparison of different extraction methods for the analysis of fragrances from Lavandula species by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography a, 982(1), 31-47. https://www.academia.edu/29756287/Comparison_of_different_extraction_methods_for_the_analysis_of_volatile_secondary_metabolites_of_Lippia_alba_Mill_N_E_Brown_grown_in_Colombia_and_evaluation_of_its_in_vitro_antioxidant_activity
For a study on different lavender honeys
Guyot-Declerck, C., Renson, S., Bouseta, A., & Collin, S. (2002). Floral quality and discrimination of Lavandula stoechas, Lavandula angustifolia, and Lavandula angustifolia× latifolia honeys. Food Chemistry, 79(4), 453-459. Retrieved from https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=2fba25461eeadbaa029ca83bd394cd42f98295dc
Shellie, R., Mondello, L., Marriott, P., & Dugo, G. (2002). Characterisation of lavender essential oils by using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry with correlation of linear retention indices and comparison with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A, 970(1-2), 225-234. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/22243864/Characterisation_of_lavender_essential_oils_by_using_gas_chromatography_mass_spectrometry_with_correlation_of_linear_retention_indices_and_comparison_with_comprehensive_two_dimensional_gas_chromatography
Dob, T., Dahmane, D., Agli, M., & Chelghoum, C. (2006). Essential oil composition of Lavandula stoechas. from Algeria. Pharmaceutical biology, 44(1), 60-64. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13880200500496421
Angioni, A., Barra, A., Coroneo, V., Dessi, S., & Cabras, P. (2006). Chemical composition, seasonal variability, and antifungal activity of Lavandula stoechas L. ssp. stoechas essential oils from stem/leaves and flowers. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 54(12), 4364-4370. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/13533352/Chemical_Composition_Seasonal_Variability_and_Antifungal_Activity_of_Lavandula_stoechas_L_ssp_stoechas_Essential_Oils_from_Stem_Leaves_and_Flowers
Kim, N. S., & Lee, D. S. (2002). Comparison of different extraction methods for the analysis of fragrances from Lavandula species by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography a, 982(1), 31-47. https://www.academia.edu/29756287/Comparison_of_different_extraction_methods_for_the_analysis_of_volatile_secondary_metabolites_of_Lippia_alba_Mill_N_E_Brown_grown_in_Colombia_and_evaluation_of_its_in_vitro_antioxidant_activity
For a study on different lavender honeys
Guyot-Declerck, C., Renson, S., Bouseta, A., & Collin, S. (2002). Floral quality and discrimination of Lavandula stoechas, Lavandula angustifolia, and Lavandula angustifolia× latifolia honeys. Food Chemistry, 79(4), 453-459. Retrieved from https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=2fba25461eeadbaa029ca83bd394cd42f98295dc
Turkish/ Damascene/ Damask rose
(Rosa × damascena)
Image by AdobeStock/maria
Studies
Babu, K.G.; Singh, B.; Joshi, V.P.; Singh, V. Essential oil composition of Damask rose (Rosa damascena Mill.) distilled under different pressures and temperatures. Flavour Fragr. J. 2002, 17, 136–140. Retrieved from: https://www.academia.edu/8345798/Essential_oil_composition_of_Damask_rose_Rosa_damascena_
Mill_distilled_under_different_pressures_and_temperatures
Villa, C.; Robustelli Della Cuna, F.S.; Russo, E.; Ibrahim, M.F.; Grignani, E.; Preda, S. Microwave-Assisted and Conventional Extractions of Volatile Compounds from Rosa x damascena Mill. Fresh Petals for Cosmetic Applications. Molecules 2022, 27, 3963. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27123963 doi.org/10.3390/molecules27123963
Gateva, S.; Jovtchev, G.; Chanev, C.; Georgieva, A.; Stankov, A.; Dobreva, A.; Mileva, M. Assessment of anti-cytotoxic, anti-genotoxic and antioxidant potentials of Bulgarian Rosa alba L. essential Oil. Caryologia 2020, 73. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Milka-Mileva/publication/264839964_Chemical_composition_in_vitro_antiradical_and_antimicrobial_activities_of_Bulgarian_Rosa_alba_L_essential_oil_against_some_oral_pathogens/
Hosni, K. Rosa× alba: Source of essential minerals and volatile oils. Nat. Prod. Bioprospect. 2011, 1, 57–61. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13659-011-0012-x
Babu, K.G.; Singh, B.; Joshi, V.P.; Singh, V. Essential oil composition of Damask rose (Rosa damascena Mill.) distilled under different pressures and temperatures. Flavour Fragr. J. 2002, 17, 136–140. Retrieved from: https://www.academia.edu/8345798/Essential_oil_composition_of_Damask_rose_Rosa_damascena_
Mill_distilled_under_different_pressures_and_temperatures
Villa, C.; Robustelli Della Cuna, F.S.; Russo, E.; Ibrahim, M.F.; Grignani, E.; Preda, S. Microwave-Assisted and Conventional Extractions of Volatile Compounds from Rosa x damascena Mill. Fresh Petals for Cosmetic Applications. Molecules 2022, 27, 3963. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27123963 doi.org/10.3390/molecules27123963
Gateva, S.; Jovtchev, G.; Chanev, C.; Georgieva, A.; Stankov, A.; Dobreva, A.; Mileva, M. Assessment of anti-cytotoxic, anti-genotoxic and antioxidant potentials of Bulgarian Rosa alba L. essential Oil. Caryologia 2020, 73. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Milka-Mileva/publication/264839964_Chemical_composition_in_vitro_antiradical_and_antimicrobial_activities_of_Bulgarian_Rosa_alba_L_essential_oil_against_some_oral_pathogens/
Hosni, K. Rosa× alba: Source of essential minerals and volatile oils. Nat. Prod. Bioprospect. 2011, 1, 57–61. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13659-011-0012-x
White rose of York (Rosa × alba)
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Image by Shuttrstock/Ahmed Noor Khan
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Violet (Viola odorata)
While the aroma of violets is said to be perdominantily of the iones α-ionone and β-ionone, the gas chromatography work by other has provided mixed results with little to no conclusive overlap to report.
Studies
Wikipedia contributors. (2023, April 16). Ionone. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:26, December 7, 2023, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ionone&oldid=1150119152
Orchard, A.; Moosa, T.; Motala, N.; Kamatou, G.; Viljoen, A.; Vuuren, S.v. Commercially Available Viola odorata Oil, Chemical Variability and Antimicrobial Activity. Molecules 2023, 28, 1676. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28041676
Hammami, I., Kamoun, N., & Rebai, A. (2011). Biocontrol of Botrytis cinerea with essential oil and methanol extract of Viola odorata L. flowers. Arch. Appl. Sci. Res, 3(5), 44-51. Retrieved from www.researchgate.net/profile/Salman-Ahmed-23/post/How_can_I_take_the_essential_oil_of_viola_odorata/attachment/59d61dcd79197b8077979e88/AS%3A273535266689063%401442227298098/
Studies
Wikipedia contributors. (2023, April 16). Ionone. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:26, December 7, 2023, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ionone&oldid=1150119152
Orchard, A.; Moosa, T.; Motala, N.; Kamatou, G.; Viljoen, A.; Vuuren, S.v. Commercially Available Viola odorata Oil, Chemical Variability and Antimicrobial Activity. Molecules 2023, 28, 1676. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28041676
Hammami, I., Kamoun, N., & Rebai, A. (2011). Biocontrol of Botrytis cinerea with essential oil and methanol extract of Viola odorata L. flowers. Arch. Appl. Sci. Res, 3(5), 44-51. Retrieved from www.researchgate.net/profile/Salman-Ahmed-23/post/How_can_I_take_the_essential_oil_of_viola_odorata/attachment/59d61dcd79197b8077979e88/AS%3A273535266689063%401442227298098/
Saffron (Crocus sativus)
Image by AdobeStock/Viper AGP
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Other compounds
While safranal is one of the primary compounds giving saffron its “signature” taste, as noted in the above chart, other compounds have similar influences on saffron’s characteristics. These include:
For more insight Cid-Pérez, T.S.; Nevárez-Moorillón, G.V.; Ochoa-Velasco, C.E.; Navarro-Cruz, A.R.; Hernández-Carranza, P.; Avila-Sosa, R. The Relation between Drying Conditions and the Development of Volatile Compounds in Saffron (Crocus sativus). Molecules 2021, 26, 6954. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26226954 Saffron Quality Influences and Grades The ratio of style (flower part that joins the stigma to the flower) to red stigma influences quality as its inclusion weakens color and aromas. Grades of Iranian saffron:
Grades of Spanish saffron
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Studies
Amanpour, A., Sonmezdag, A. S., Kelebek, H., & Selli, S. (2015). GC–MS–olfactometric characterization of the most aroma-active components in a representative aromatic extract from Iranian saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Food chemistry, 182, 251-256. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/88278810/GC_MS_olfactometric_characterization_of_the_most_aroma_active_components_in_a_representative_aromatic_extract_from_Iranian_saffron_Crocus_sativus_L_ Chen, D., Xing, B., Yi, H., Li, Y., Zheng, B., Wang, Y., & Shao, Q. (2020). Effects of different drying methods on appearance, microstructure, bioactive compounds and aroma compounds of saffron (Crocus sativus L.). LWT, 120, 108913. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337688708_Effects_of_different_drying_methods_on_appearance_microstructure_bioactive_compounds_and_aroma_compounds_of_saffron_Crocus_sativus_L Cerdá-Bernad, D.; Clemente-Villalba, J.; Valero-Cases, E.; Pastor, J.-J.; Frutos, M.-J. Novel Insight into the Volatile Profile and Antioxidant Properties of Crocus sativus L. Flowers. Antioxidants 2022, 11, 1650. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11091650 |
Plumeria/frangipani (Plumieria spp).
Image by Eqroy/AdobeStock
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Other Aroma Compounds
Lawal et al 2014 found high percentages of
Tohar et al 2006 found in P. acuminsta (yellow flower) high percentages of:
Sahoo et al 2021
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Studies
Tohar, N., Awang, K., Mohd, M. A., & Jantan, I. (2006). Chemical composition of the essential oils of four Plumeria species grown on Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 18(6), 613-617. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Norsita-Tohar/publication/288672172_Chemical_composition_of_the_essential_oils_of_four_Plumeria_species_grown_on_peninsular_Malaysia/links/5b68207745851584787f2598/Chemical-composition-of-the-essential-oils-of-four-Plumeria-species-grown-on-peninsular-Malaysia.pdf Sahoo, A., Dash, B., Jena, S., Ray, A., Panda, P. C., & Nayak, S. (2021). Phytochemical composition of flower essential oil of Plumeria alba grown in India. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 24(4), 671-676. Retitrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Pratap-Panda-2/publication/354315970_Phytochemical_Composition_of_Flower_Essential_Oil_of_Plumeria_alba_Grown_in_India/links/615d45505a481543a887b153/Phytochemical-Composition-of-Flower-Essential-Oil-ofe-Plumeria-alba-Grown-in-India.pdf Lawal, O. A., Ogunwande, I. A., & Opoku, A. R. (2014). Constituents of essential oils from the leaf and flower of Plumeria alba grown in Nigeria. Natural Product Communications, 9(11), 1934578X1400901121. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1934578X1400901121 For more insight Criley, R. A. (2005, January). Plumeria in Hawai'i. CTAHR. Retrieved November 24, 2023, from https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/of-31.pdf |
Orange blossom (Citrus aurantium L.)
Photo by Iness_la_luz/
Shutterstock
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Studies
Jeannot, V., Chahboun, J., Russell, D., & Baret, P. (2005). Quantification and determination of chemical composition of the essential oil extracted from natural orange blossom water (Citrus aurantium L. ssp. aurantium). International Journal of Aromatherapy, 15(2), 94-97. Retrieved from: www.researchgate.net/publication/251629061_Quantification_and_determination_of_chemical_composition_of_the_essential_oil_extracted_from_natural_orange_blossom_water_Citrus_aurantium_L_ssp_aurantium
Sarrou, E.; Chatzopoulou, P.; Dimassi-Theriou, K.; Therios, I. Volatile Constituents and Antioxidant Activity of Peel, Flowers and Leaf Oils of Citrus aurantium L. Growing in Greece. Molecules 2013, 18, 10639-10647. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules180910639
Hsouna, A. B., Hamdi, N., Halima, N. B., & Abdelkafi, S. (2013). Characterization of essential oil from Citrus aurantium L. flowers: antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Journal of Oleo Science, 62(10), 763-772. www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jos/62/10/62_763/_article/-char/ja/
***Orange blossom essential oils is also known as neroli essential oil
Jeannot, V., Chahboun, J., Russell, D., & Baret, P. (2005). Quantification and determination of chemical composition of the essential oil extracted from natural orange blossom water (Citrus aurantium L. ssp. aurantium). International Journal of Aromatherapy, 15(2), 94-97. Retrieved from: www.researchgate.net/publication/251629061_Quantification_and_determination_of_chemical_composition_of_the_essential_oil_extracted_from_natural_orange_blossom_water_Citrus_aurantium_L_ssp_aurantium
Sarrou, E.; Chatzopoulou, P.; Dimassi-Theriou, K.; Therios, I. Volatile Constituents and Antioxidant Activity of Peel, Flowers and Leaf Oils of Citrus aurantium L. Growing in Greece. Molecules 2013, 18, 10639-10647. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules180910639
Hsouna, A. B., Hamdi, N., Halima, N. B., & Abdelkafi, S. (2013). Characterization of essential oil from Citrus aurantium L. flowers: antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Journal of Oleo Science, 62(10), 763-772. www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jos/62/10/62_763/_article/-char/ja/
***Orange blossom essential oils is also known as neroli essential oil
White Ginger (Hedychium coronarium)
Photo by Shutterstock/Rickeyudha
Zhou et al. (2021) extracted by HS-SPME H. coronarium grown in a greenhouse environment at South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China and found:
Studies
Zhou, Y., Abbas, F., Wang, Z., Yu, Y., Yue, Y., Li, X., ... & Fan, Y. (2021). HS–SPME–GC–MS and electronic nose reveal differences in the volatile profiles of Hedychium flowers. Molecules, 26(17), 5425.
https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/26/17/5425
- (E)-β-Ocimene: 35.58 ± 1.71%
- Linalool: 14.98 ± 0.24%
- Eucalyptol: 8.36 ± 0.48%
- Methyl benzoate: 6.92 ± 3.26%
- 2,4,6-Octatriene, 2,6-dimethyl-, (E,Z): 3.33 ± 0.78%
- α-Farnesene: 1.28 ± 0.24%
- Butyl aldoxime, 3-methyl-, syn: 1.63 ± 0.43%
- β-Myrcene: 1.45 ± 0.12%
Studies
Zhou, Y., Abbas, F., Wang, Z., Yu, Y., Yue, Y., Li, X., ... & Fan, Y. (2021). HS–SPME–GC–MS and electronic nose reveal differences in the volatile profiles of Hedychium flowers. Molecules, 26(17), 5425.
https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/26/17/5425